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The Chola Empire

The History of Chola Empire Indian History

The Cholas

The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.

Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya helped his overlord the Pallava king Aparajita against the Pandyas but soon defeated him and annexed the whole of the Pallava kingdom.

By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated the Pallavas completely and weakened the Pandyas capturing the Tamil country (Tondamandala) and including it under their domination He then became a sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to Aditya.

He erected many Shiva temples. He was succeeded in 907 A.D. by Parantaka I, the first important ruler of the Cholas. Parantaka I was an ambitious ruler and engaged himself in wars of conquest from the beginning of his reign. He conquered Madurai from the Pandya ruler Rajasimha II. He assumed the title of Maduraikonda (captor of Madurai).

He, however, lost to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III at the battle of Tokkolam in 949 A. D. The Cholas had to cede Tondamandalam to the adversary. At that point of time the Chola kingdom almost ceased to exist. It was a serious setback to the rising Chola power. The revival of Chola power began from the accession of Parantaka II who recovered Tondamandalam to reestablish dominance of the dynasty.

The climax in Chola power was achieved under the successor of Parantaka II, Arumolivarman, who crowned himself as Rajaraja I in 985 A D the next thirty years of his rule formed the formative periodof Chola imperialism.

The Chola kingdom grew under him into an extensive and well-knit empire, efficiently organized and administered and possessing a powerful standing army and navy. Rajaraja began his conquests by attacking the confederation between the rulers of the Pandya and Kerala kingdoms and of Ceylon. Polonnaruva became the capital of Chola province in North Ceylon after the defeat of Mahinda V, the Ceylonese king.

He also annexed the Maldives. Elsewhere, several parts of modern Mysore were conquered and annexed which intensified their rivalry with the Chalukyas. Rajaraja built the magnificent Shiva temple of Brihadeshwara or Rajaraja temple at Thanjavur which was completed in 1010. It is considered a remarkable piece of architecture in South Indian style.

Rajaraja I also encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist Vihara at Negapatam. This vihara was called ‘Chudamani Vihara’ after the father of Sri Mara. Rajaraja was succeeded by his son Rajendra I in 1014 A.D. He ruled jointly with his father for a few years. He also followed a policy of conquest and annexation adopted by his father and further raised the power and prestige of the Cholas. He followed the expansionist policy and made extensive conquests in Ceylon.

The Pandya and Kerala country after being conquered was constituted as a viceroyalty under the Chola king with the title of Chola-Pandya. Madurai was its headquarters. Proceeding through Kalinga, Rajendra I attacked Bengal and defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D. But he annexed no territory in north India

To commemorate the occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of Ganga). He built the new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (the city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga).

With his naval forces, he invaded Malaya Peninsula and Srivijaya Empire that extended over Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas trade route to China. He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political as well as commercial purposes.

Rajendra was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja I in 1044 A.D. He was also an able ruler. He put down the hostile forces in Ceylon and suppressed the rebellious Pandyas and subjugated their territory. He celebrated his victory by performing Virabhisheka (coronation of the victor) at Kalyani after sacking Kalyani and assumed the title of Vijayarajendra. He lost his life in the battle with the Chalukyan king Someswara I at Koppam. His brother Rajendra II succeeded him. He continued his struggle against Someswara.

He defeated Someswara in the battle of Kudal Sangamam. Next came Virarajendra I, he too defeated the Chalukyas and erected a pillar of victory on the banks of Tungabhadra. Virarajendra died in 1070 A.D. He was succeeded by Kulottunga I (1070-1122 A.D.) the great-grandson of Rajaraja I. He was the son of Rajendra Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess Ammangadevi (daughter of Rajendra Chola I). Thus Kulottunga I united the two kingdoms of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of Thanjavur.

The most important reforms carried out by him in the internal administration was the re- surveyal of land for taxation and revenue purposes. He was also titled Sungam tavirtta (he who abolished tolls). The Chola authority in Ceylon was overthrown by Vijayababu, the monarch of Ceylon during Kulottunga’s reign. He sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and also maintained cordial relations with Sri Vijaya.

He defeated the rulers of the Pandya kingdom and that of Kerala. Thfe Chola Empire continued for more than a century after him. Weak rulers succeeded him. The Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for the overlordship of Vengi, the Tungabhadra doab and the Ganga country.

The Chola Empire continued in a flourishing condition during the twelfth century but declined by the end of the thirteenth century. The Pandyan king Sundara rendered the final blow by seizing Kanchi in 1297 A.D. The place of the Cholas was taken over by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas. This marked the end of the Chola power.

Administration:

The king was the head of the administration of the Cholas and all powers were concentrated in his hands. The form of the Chola government was hereditary monarchy. The rule of primogeniture generally prevailed. The king generally appointed his Yuvaraja (heir) during his reign.

The Chola rulers took high- sounding titles as Gangaikondacholapuram. The royal household also runs on an elaborate scale. The royal priest Rajguru became the close confidant of the royal family. The king had council of ministers to aid and assists him.

The king gave verbal orders (tiruvakya-kelvi) which were drafted by the private secretary and confirmed by the Olainayamak (Chief Secretary) and a Perundaram before its despatch by the Vidaiyadhikari (despatch clerk). They often advised him on important matters. An elaborate and complicated bureaucracy ran the government.

The officials tended to form a separate class in society. Perundaram were higher officials while sirutaram were lower officials. Peruvalis (trunk roads) helped in royal tours. The general tendency was to make the officers hereditary. The officials were paid by assignments of land called jivitas according to their status.

Revenue Administration:

A well-organised department of land revenue, known as the puravu-varitinaik – katam was in existence. Land revenue was collected in cash or kind. Land was possessed by individuals and communities. The state under Rajaraja demanded 1/3rd of the gross produce. Kadamai or Kudimai, according to N.K. Sastri was the land revenue. There were taxes on profession, mines, forests, saltpans, etc. Kulottung I abolished tolls. Unpaid labour was frequently employed.

Military Administration:

The army consisted of infantry, cavalry and elephants which formed the three limbs of the great army – Mun-rukai-Mahasenai. The Kaikkolas were soldiers armed with strong arms and the Sengundar were armed with spears.

The Velaikkarars were the most dependable troops in the royal service and were the bodyguards of the monarch, who defended him with their lives and were ready to immolate themselves on the king’s funeral. Attention was given to the training of the army and cantonments, called Kadagams or padaividu, existed. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.

The whole empire was divided into mandalams or provinces. Sometimes princes of the royal family were appointed governors of the provinces. Further they were divided into valanadus (divisions), nadus (districts) and kurrams (villages). Village was the basic unit of administration.

The villages were mainly of three types. The first type constituted of an intercaste population where the land was held by all classes of people and paid taxes to the king in the form of land revenue. It was the most frequent type. The second was the Brahmadeya or agrahara villages which was granted to the Brahmins and was entirely inhabited by them.

They were exempted from tax and were prosperous. The third type of village was the Devadana, which were villages granted to god. The revenues from these villages were donated to a temple. During Cholas the Devadana type of villages gained more popularity as the temples became the centres of life.

There was remarkable autonomy at the village level. Chola officials participated in village administration more as observers than as administrators. The Cholas are best known for their local self-government at the village level.

We hear of three assemblies called the ur, sabha or mahasabha and nagaram. The ur was a general assembly of the village. The ur consisted of all the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village. The Alunganattar was the executive committee and the ruling group of the ur.

The ur open to all male adults but was dominated by the older members. The sabha was apparently an exclusively Brahmin assembly of the brahmadeya villages. The sabha had more complex machinery, which functioned largely through its committees called the variyams.

Election to the executive body and other committees of the ur and sabha appears to have been conducted by draw of lots from among those who were eligible. The nagaram was an assembly of merchants and were found more commonly in the trading centers.

The Uttaramerur inscriptions of the Chola monarch Parantaka I of 919 A.D. and 921 A.D may be said to constitute a great landmark in the history of the Chola village assemblies. It gives details about the functioning and constitution of the local sabha.

The 919 A.D. inscriptions framed the rules for election and 921 A.D. incriptions amended them.

There were 30 wards (kudumbus) each nominatin members for selections of people with the prescribed qualifications. Elections from each ward was by lot (kudavolai, literally means pot-ticket) for a period of one year.

Of the thirty so selected, twelve members who had earlier served in the garden and tank committee and were advanced in age, were assigned to the samvatsarvariyam or annual committee, twelve to the Tottavariyam or the garden committee and 6 members to the Eri-variyam or tank committee Pancha-variyam (a standing committee) and Pon-variyam (gold committee) were the other two committees.

Variyapparumakal were the members of the committee, Perunguri were the members of the Mahasabha; Nyayaffarwas the Judicial committee and Madhyasthas, a small staff of paid servants in the village assisted the committees and maintained village records. The Assembly generally met in the temple, or under a tree or near a tank

The sabha possessed proprietary rights over communal lands. It also controlled private lands of the villages. It reclaimed forest and waste land. It aided in the assessment of the produce and land revenue. It collected land revenue and had the power to sell the land in question, in cases of default. I also had the powers of taxation for purposes connected with the village and of remission of taxation for specific reasons.

Economic Life:

Land tax constituted the single largest source of income of the Chola state. It was generally assessed at one-third of the produce. The village assembly took land tax and local levies. Cattle rearing were a subsidiary occupation.

Trade with foreign countries was an important feature of the Cholas mercantile activities. The rulers built a network of royal roads that were useful for trade as well as for the movement of the army. There were gigantic trade guilds that traded with Java and Sumatra.

South India exported textiles, spices, drugs, jewels, ivory, horn, ebony and camphor to China. Trade brought considerable prestige and affluence to the Cholas. Kalanju was the currency prevalent in the Chola kingdom.

Social Life:

The caste system was the basis of the social organization under the Cholas. Society was divided into a number of social groups or castes. Each caste was hereditary and constituted an occupational group. Bramhanas occupied a privilege position in the society. They combined both religious authority and economic power. They were exempted from taxes, owned and enjoyed land with full royal support.

Their main duties included learning and teaching of the Vedas and performing rituals and ceremonies. Some of them served as chief priests of the temple. Some of them were more adventurous and engaged themselves in trade.

They were given lighter punishments in case of offences committed. The almost total absence of Kshatriya institutions necessitated an alliance between sections of brahmanas and the dominant peasantry. The Nattar was the dominant peasant community, and the cultivators were the subordinate client group of the nattars. The newly assimilated castes from marginal tracts were often combined in mass groupings of Idangai (left handed castes) and Valangai (right handed castes.

Rudimentary hierarchy of social groups from classical times according to the Silapadikaram were vellalar-cultivator, kovalar-cowherds and shepherds, vedar-hunters, Padaiyacciar- artisan groups and armed men and valaiyar-fishermen. Worship of deceased rulers and construction of temples as tributes to dead kings was a special feature of the Chola period.

Chola dynasty 300s BCE–1279 CE

Capital

· Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur, Tiruvarur

· Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur

· Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Government

Monarchy

King and Emperor

• 848–871

Vijayalaya Chola (first)

• 1246–1279

Rajendra Chola III (last)

Historical era

Middle Ages

• Established

300s BCE

• Rise of the medieval Cholas

848 CE

• Empire at its greatest extent

1030 CE

• Disestablished

1279 CE

Succeeded by

Pandyan dynasty

List of Chola kings and emperors

Early Cholas

· Ellalan

· Kulakkottan

· Ilamchetchenni

· Karikala

· Nedunkilli

· Nalankilli

Interregnum (c. 200 – c. 848)

848–891(?)

891–907

907–950

950–957

956–957

Sundara (Parantaka II)

957–970

(co-regent)

970–985

985–1014

1012–1044

1044–1054

1054–1063

1063–1070

1070–1070

1070–1120

1118–1135

1133–1150

1146–1173

1166–1178

1178–1218

1216–1256

1246–1279

The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the world's history. The earliest datable references to the Cholaare in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13). As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. Despite these ancient origins, the period when it is appropriate to speak of a "Chola Empire" only begins with the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of three centuries and more between 907 and 1215 AD. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, and Kulothunga Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by naval raids on cities of the city-state of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power.

During the period 1010–1153, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Origins

The Cholas are also known as the Choda. The antiquity of the name is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. During the past 150 years, historians have gleaned significant knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.[a] Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)[b] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), and in the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylonand Cholas in the 1st century BCE. Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.

A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi , Valavan , Sembiyan and Cenni. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with "valam” fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. Cenni in Tamil means Head.

Historical records in the form of epigraphs and copper-plate grants exist from the time of the Medieval Cholas who claimed a long and ancient lineage in these records. The Anbil plates of Sundara Chola traces the king's lineage from Vishnu through Marichi, Kasyapa and Sibi among others. The Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola I and the Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra Chola trace the origin of the Cholas to the Solar dynasty of Ikshvaku who was the son of Satyavrata (Sraddhadeva Manu), the king of Dravida kingdom. The Tiruvalangadu plates, in addition to tracing the lineage to the solar dynasty mention Sibi, the son of Usinara as an ancestor. However, according to Puranas, emperor Sibi belonged to the Lunar race. Historians have dismissed these divine ancestries as nothing but fanciful inventions as it was the norm at that time for Indian kingdoms, particularly south Indian dynasties to connect their lineages to the Solar and Lunar races of north India because in order to gain legitimacy the king had to be a Kshatriya.

History

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.

Early Cholas

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the second or first few centuries of the common era. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence. Two names are prominent among those Chola kings known to have existed who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan. There are no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of around the same period. Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the island Sri Lanka and conquered it around 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.

Interregnum

There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled during that time. They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century. As per inscriptions found in and around Thanjavur, the kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas for three centuries. Their reign was ended by Vijayalaya chola who captured Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar between 848-851 CE.

Epigraphy and literature provide few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them, this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals. The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation. Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence hailed from that area.

Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in an apparent reference to these Telugu Cholas.

Imperial Cholas

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history. Vijayalaya, possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in c. 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period. Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. The second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala.

Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishnariver basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast in addition to Lakshadweep, Maldives, and vast areas of Chera country. Rajaraja Chola I was a ruler with inexhaustible energy, and he applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal that he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to effectively marshall the resources of his empire. He also built the Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010 CE.

Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India. Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there. This expedition had such a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu. He also completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a prisoner, in addition to his conquests of Rattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where the Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue) in Kannada country. Rajendra's territories included the area falling on the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Three diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.

The Western Chalukya Empire under Satyashraya and Someshvara I tried to wriggle out of Chola domination from time to time, primarily due to the Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories between 1118–1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive Chola emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. Virarajendra Chola defeated Someshvara II of the Western Chalukya Empire and made an alliance with Prince Vikramaditya VI. Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas in the western Deccan by defeating them in war and levying tribute on them. Even under the emperors of the Cholas like Kulothunga I and Vikrama Chola, the wars against the Chalukyas were mainly fought in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi, Kakinada, Anantapur, or Gutti. Then the former feudatories like the Hoysalas, Yadvas, and Kakatiyas steadily increased their power and finally replaced the Chalukyas. With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana, where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve.

The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185–1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.

On the other hand, throughout the period from 1150–1280, the staunchest opponents of the Cholas were Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories. This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Cholas also fought regular wars with the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga, protected Vengi though it remained largely independent under Chola control, and had domination of the entire eastern coast with their feudatories the Telugu Cholas, Velananti Cholas, Renandu Cholas etc. who also always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms and fought constantly with the Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, but until the time of the Later Chola king Kulottunga I the Cholas had firm control over Lanka. A Later Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II, was strong enough to prevail over a confederation of five Pandya princes who were aided by their traditional friend, the king of Lanka, this once again gave control of Lanka to the Cholas despite the fact that they were not strong under the resolute Rajadhiraja Chola II. However, his successor, the last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola IIIreinforced the hold of the Cholas by quelling rebellion and disturbances in Lanka and Madurai, defeated Hoysala generals under Veera Ballala II in Karuvur, in addition to holding on to his traditional territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi and Kalinga. After this, he entered into a marital alliance with Veera Ballala II (with Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess) and his relationship with Hoysalas seems to have become friendlier.

Overseas conquests

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast. In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu. A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others. A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century. Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and north coast of Sumatra.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.

The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850–1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola Empire, though not as strong as between 850–1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16. Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.

Decline

The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for some time. At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III

The Hoysalas played a divisive role in the politics of the Tamil country during this period. They thoroughly exploited the lack of unity among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported one Tamil kingdom against the other thereby preventing both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to their full potential. During the period of Rajaraja III, the Hoysalas sided with the Cholas and defeated the Kadava chieftain Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and established a presence in the Tamil country. Rajendra Chola III who succeeded Rajaraja III was a much better ruler who took bold steps to revive the Chola fortunes. He led successful expeditions to the north as attested by his epigraphs found as far as Cuddappah. He also defeated two Pandya princes one of whom was Maravarman Sundara Pandya II and briefly made the Pandyas submit to the Chola overlordship. The Hoysalas, under Vira Someswara, were quick to intervene and this time they sided with the Pandyas and repulsed the Cholas in order to counter the latter's revival. The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of the Cholas from Tamil country and the demise of the Cholas themselves ultimately was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha. The Pandyans gradually became major players in the Tamil country from 1215 and intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu and Kanyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta i.e., Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250.

The Pandyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas. They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, by defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam. At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus, the Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity and ceased to exist by the end of the 13th century. However, only the Chola dynasty in India was extinguished but it survived elsewhere. According to Cebuano oral legends, a rebel branch of the Chola dynasty continued to survive in the Philippines up until the 16th Century, a local Malayo-Tamil Indianized kingdom called the Rajahnate of Cebu which settled in the island of Cebu which was founded by Rajamuda Sri Lumay who was half Tamil, half Malay. He was born in the previously Chola occupied Srivijaya. He was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent rajahnate. The Indianized kingdom flourished until its eventual conquest by Conquistador Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, who with his Spanish and Latino soldiers had sailed to the Philippines from Mexico.

Administration and society

Chola territory

According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river, which is also known as the Ponni (Golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known as Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part.

Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. Ptolemy knew of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas. These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism. Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam. After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.

Government

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government.

The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a whole. Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The Chola Dynasty was divided into several provinces called Mandalams which were further divided into Valanadus and these Valanadus were sub-divided into units called Kottams or Kutrams. According to Kathleen Gough, during the Chola period the Vellalar were the "dominant secular aristocratic caste ... providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry".

Before the reign of Rajaraja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. Through these dependent officials the administration was improved and the Chola kings were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the empire. There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there was a reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus.

The order of the King was first communicated by the executive officer to the local authorities. Afterwards the records of the transaction were drawn up and attested by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officers.

At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottam, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or confiscation of property.

Military

The Chola dynasty had a robust military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy.[121] There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most permanent and dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. The elephants played a major role in the army and the dynasty had numerous war elephants. These carried houses or huge Howdahs on their backs, full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and who fought with spears at close quarters.

The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made up of bricks but other materials like stone, wood and mud were also used. According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps.

The soldiers of the Chola dynasty used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears and shields which were made up of steel. Particularly the famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to produce weapons. The army consisted of people from different castes but the warriors of the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a prominent role.

The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya. The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. The Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India.

A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.

Economy

Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers—at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade.

One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets. The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds. The weavers had their own residential sector in all towns. The most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar. During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.

Metal crafts reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major export item.

The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture. The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry.

In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax (iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts. The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time. The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes- one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they were assigned. The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola I dug near his capital an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers.

There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.

Hospitals

Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was named after Vira Chola. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who was paid annually 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor operations) and a waterman.

The Chola queen Kundavai also established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for the perpetual maintenance of it.

Society

During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence. The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group. The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. The Vellalar were also sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers. The Ulavar community were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar.

The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th-13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in money power. Skilled classes like the weavers and the merchant-class had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners.

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses. Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.

Foreign trade

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The south Indian guilds played a major role in interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies. The encouragement by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.

Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."

Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077, and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices. Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.

Canals and water tanks

There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c. 900-1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal. There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of devadana and bramadeya lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which even today seems an important source of irrigation was the Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district founded by Parantaka Chola. Other famous lakes of this period are Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen).

Cultural contributions

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, music and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures. Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture.

According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire. Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.

Art and architecture

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by Aditya I and Parantaka. The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of the past bequeathed to them by the Pallava Dynasty. Architectural historian James Fergusson says that "the Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers". A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its form and attained maturity under the Pandya Dynasty. The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Templeat Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

Literature

The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors. The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam. Commentaries were written on the great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but which also mentions ethics of warfare. Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. This work is in a sense a national epic of the Tamil people because it treats of the lives of the saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high and low, educated and uneducated.[

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic. He imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.

Jayamkondar's masterpiece, Kalingattuparani, is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I's war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field. The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.

Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.

The period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu language.

Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century. However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.

Cultural centres

Chola rulers took an active interest in the development of temple centres and used the temples to widen the sphere of their royal authority. They established educational institutions and hospitals around the temple, enhanced the beneficial aspects of the role of the temple, and projected the royalty as a very powerful and genial presence. A record of Virarajendra Chola's reign relates to the maintenance of a school in the Jananamandapa within the temple for the study of the Vedas, Sastras, Grammar, and Rupavatara, as well as a hostel for students. The students were provided with food, bathing oil on Saturdays, and oil for pups.[ A hospital named Virasolan was provided with fifteen beds for sick people. The items of expense set apart for their comforts are rice, a doctor, a surgeon, two maid servants for nursing the patients, and a general servant for the hospital.

Religion

In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Shaivite canon as a Hindu saint.

While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple dedicated to Shiva, it can be by no means concluded that either they were followers of Shaivism only or that they were not favourably disposed to other faiths. This is borne out by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903 CE), built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Inscriptions of 890 refer to his contributions to the construction of the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam in the country of the Western Gangas, who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him. He also pronounced that the great temples of Shiva and the Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors.

Parantaka II was a devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil, on the banks of the Kaveri river on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments. He also prayed before him before his embarking on war to regain the territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.

During the period of the Later Cholas, there are alleged to have been instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites ] especially towards their acharya, Ramanuja. A Chola sovereign called Krimikanta Chola is said to have persecuted Ramanuja. Some scholars identify Kulothunga Chola II with Krimikanta Chola or worm-necked Chola, so called as he is said to have suffered from cancer of the throat or neck. The latter finds mention in the vaishnava Guruparampara and is said to have been a strong opponent of the vaishnavas. The work Parpannamritam (17th century) refers to the Chola king called Krimikanta who is said to have removed the Govindaraja idol from the Chidambaram Nataraja temple.[232] However, according to "Koil Olugu" (temple records) of the Srirangam temple, Kulottunga Chola II was the son of Krimikanta Chola. The former, unlike his father, is said to have been a repentant son who supported vaishnavism. Ramanuja is said to have made Kulottunga II as a disciple of his nephew, Dasarathi. The king then granted the management of the Ranganathaswamy temple to Dasarathi and his descendants as per the wish of Ramanuja. Historian Nilakanta Sastri identifies Krimikanta Chola with Adhirajendra Chola or Virarajendra Chola with whom the main line (Vijayalayaline) ended. There is an inscription from 1160 AD which states that the custodians of Shiva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. However, this is more of a direction to the Shaivite community by its religious heads than any kind of dictat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built their largest temples for Shiva and even while emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, in none of their inscriptions did the Chola emperors proclaim that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.

The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan(The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy. Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola, dealing with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola to the Chola throne. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Parantaka Chola II. The book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid-1950s. The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.

Kalki's earlier historical romance, Parthiban Kanavu, deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes. Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.

Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom after he was denied the throne. It speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work, Yavana Rani, written in the early 1960s, is based on the life of Karikala Chola. More recently, Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Sivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of a play titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill.

The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language movie Aayirathil Oruvan.

The British Empire

1. The British Empire - 13.71 Million Mi2

Map of the former British Empire at its peak.

The British Empire had a profound impact on the world and its history. One can still see its influence today in many aspects of life, from language to culture to international relations. It was formed over several centuries through colonization, war, and trade, with much of its growth taking place during the 19th century. At its peak, it covered an estimated 13.71 million mi2, or around a quarter of the Earth's total land area -- making it by far the largest empire in history both in terms of population and territory. People used to say, "The sun never sets on the British Empire" because the empire consisted of colonies all over the world. However, post World War II, British imperialism began to wane, and the United Kingdom was forced to give up most of its colonial possessions. The British Empire's legacy continues to shape modern-day affairs, with Britain being among one of the most influential nations in the world. full detalil wikipedia link= https://g.co/kgs/NgwGwh

The Mauryan Age

Bhawana singh (Guest Faculty) Email id- singhbhawana47@gmail.com

The Mauryan Age(322BC-184BC)

The establishment of Mauryan empire was a turning point in the history of Indian territory. The control of this massive empire continued for over a long period of almost 140years over of large part of northern India. After the overthrow of the Nanda Dynasty at Magadh the Mauryas came to prominence. The empire came into being when Chandragupta Maurya stepped into the vaccum created by the departure of Alexander of Macedonia from the western borders of India. In his rise to power, he was aided and counseled by his chief minister Kautilya, who wrote the Arthashastra, a compendium of kingship and governance.

Sources of Mauryan Empire:

The history of their rule is rendered comparatively reliable on account of evidence obtained from a variety of sources. There are three types of sources available about the Mauryan Empire.

Literary Source:

· Brahmanical Literature:

1. Arthashastra of Kutilya/Chanakya/Vishnugupta;

It is a detailed work on statecraft. Kautilya‟s work consist of 15 volumes(Adhikarnas). The first five deals with internal administration (tantra), the next eight with inter-state relations (avapa), and the last two with miscellaneous topics.

2. Indica of Megasthense:

This book was based on his travels and experience in India. The book has not survived but fragments are preserved in later Greek and Latin works, the earliest and most important of which are those of Diodorus, Strabo, Arrian, Pliny.

3. Mudrarakshas of Vishakdutta

4. Rajtrangini of Kalhana

5. Mahabhashya of Patanjali

6. Kathasaritsagar of Somdeva

7. The Puranas (Vishnupurana)

· Buddhist Literature:

1. Srilankan Chronicals- Deepvamsha and Mahavamsha.

2. Divyavadana

3. Ashokavandana

4. Mahabodhivamsha

5. Digghanikaya

6. Milindpanho

· Jain Literature:

1. Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu.

2. Parishishtaparvana of Hemchandra.

· Sangam Literature:

1. Ahnanur of Mamulnar.

2. Parnar of Kapilar.

· Foreign Accounts:

1. Indiaca of Megasthenes.

2. Contemporary writings of writers like Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus .

Archeological Sources:

· Inscriptions of Chandragupta Maurya:

The Sahgaura copper plate(Gorakhpur-Uttarpradesh) and the Mahasthan copper plate(Bagaur-Bangladesh) gives a mentions about the granary built during the reign of Chandragupta which also depicts about the draught occurred during his reign.

The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman is the only inscription which mentions the name of both Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.

· Edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka:

The most authentic Mauryan records however remain the first decipherable inscription issued by Ashoka found at 45 places on the highways in the Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan in 181 versions, they were composed in Prakrit language and Brahmi script in greater part of the Mauryan Empire, though in its north-western part they appear in Armaic and Kharoshthi.

Achievements of Chandragupta Maurya(322BC-298BC):

Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Mauryan empire , succeeded to the Nanda throne in about 321BC at the age of twenty five . The historical texts has it the the Brahmana Kautilya, was his mentor and guide. The origin and early life of Chandragupta Maurya remain obscure. According to brahmanical tradition he was born of Mura , a shudra woman in the court of Nandas. But Buddhist tradition speaks of the existence of his Kshatriya clan called Mauryas living in the region of Goraakhpur adjoining the Nepalese terai.

Early Life:

According to Justine, Chandragupta Maurya did belong to a royal blood . An anecdote follows that Chandragupta was once found playing a game of Rajkilam in his early childhood, this was the incident when he was noticed by Chanakya . He bought Chandragupta for 1000 Karshapana. Chanakya took him to Taxila along with him and educated him with all the skills required to be a ruler . This led Chandragupta to emerge out as one of the greatest emperors in the Indian history.

Political achievements of Chandragupta Maurya:

Prior to becoming a ruler he destroyed the power of foreign invaders (Greeks) and the Nanda Dynasty.

Victory over Nandas:

After gaining victory over the north western frontier area Chandragupta and Chanakya moved towards the Magadh empire . Dhanananda was the ruler of Magadh empire then who once humiliated Chanakya as a result of which he lost his empire later. Besides Puranas, Milindpanho, Mudrarakshasa, Mahavamsha and Parishishtaparvana gives information about the defeat of the Nandas . As Chandragupta took advantage of the growing unpopularity of the Nandas in the last years of their rule . He overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of Mauryan empire.

Victory over the Greeks:

The Greek accounts add that Chandragupta moved to north west India and subdued the Greek garrisons left behind Alexander. Soon, however Seleucus Nikator gained control of most Asiatic provinces of the Macedonian Empire, and in 305BC he seems to have met Chandragupta in battle .They signed a treaty and entered into ma marriage alliance . Chandragupta Maurya probably made a gift of 500 elephants to the Greek general and obtained territory across the Indus. Seleucus‟s ambassador Megasthenes lived for many years at the Mauryan court at Patliputra.

Victory over Western India:

According to the Girnar inscription (150AD) of Rudradaman, Chandragupta Maurya established his direct control over the western area till Saurashtra. Pushyagupta Vaishya was the governor of the area who is credited for buiildind „Sudarshan lake‟ . The Ashokan inscription found from Sopara also proves the control of Mauryan empire over the area.

Victory over Southern India:

The victory of Chandragupta Maurya over Southern India is mentioned in Ashoka‟a inscriptions, Jain texts and Sangam literature. He gained control over the area of Northern Karnataka. Jain texts mentions about his visit to Shravana Belgola(Karnataka) and Chandragiri mountain. The sangam text „Mamulnar‟ and „Ahnanur‟ also gives a detailed information about his control over southern territories.

According to Jain sources, Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in the favour if his son. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint, and several other monks, he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jain fashion.

Chandragupta Maurya was a great warrior, empire builder and a skilled administrator. He became the first great historical emperor of India. Many historians consider him to be the first hero of India‟s war of independence, Liberator of India as well as the first ruler of the integrated India. He is also credited for having maintained the first international matrimonial alliance as a part of his diplomatic policy with the daughter of Seleucus named Helena. Thus, he is considered to be the founder of the first empire ever in the Indian history named the Mauryan empire.

Ashoka(273BC-232BC)

The history of Ashoka is reconstructed on the basis of his inscriptions that are classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts and Minor Pillar Edicts , cave inscriptions . In 2750 T.Fanthelar discovered the inscription of Ashoka but it was James Princep who first studied his inscriptions in 1837.

Major Rock Edicts:

They are fourteen in number and found at eight places . They are:

1. Girnar (Gujarat)

2. Shahbazgarhi(Peshawar)

3. Dhauli(Odisha)

4. Junagarh(Odisha)

5. Kalsi(Uttarakhand)

6. Mansehara(Pakistan)

7. Yerragudi(Andhra Pradesh)

8. Sopara(Maharashtra)

Minor Rock Edicts:

1. Rupnath inscription(Madhya Pradesh)

2. Sasaram (Bihar)

3. Mirzapur(Uttar Pradesh)

4. Bhabru(Rajasthan)

5. Maski, Brahmagiri, Nettur, Jatingrameshwaram, Palkinath, Govimath, Sannati(Karnataka)

6. Yerragudi, Rajulmandgiri(Andhra Pradesh)

Major Pillar Edicts:

They are six in numbers and there are seven inscriptions written on it:

1. Delhi-Topra = It is the most popular pillar edict. All the seven inscriptions are written on it . Firoz Shah Tughlaq called it Minar-i-Zaheen.

2. Delhi-Meerut

3. Prayag

4. Lauria-Araraj(Champaran,Bihar)

5. Lauria-Nandangarh(Champaran,Bihar)

6. Rampurva(Champaran, Bihar)

Minor Pillar Edicts:

1. Sanchi

2. Sarnath

3. Kaushambi- the name of Ashoka‟s wife Karuvaki is mentioned on this pillar that‟s why it is called Queen‟s pillar.

4. Rummendai- it gives us information about the taxation system of Mauryan empire . Bhag and Bali was two types of taxes . Ashoka came here after 20th year of his coronation.

5. Nigliva

Nearly a hundred years ago Ashoka was merely a shadowy Mauryan king mentioned in the Puranas. In 1837 James Princep deciphered an inscription in Brahmi referring to a king called Devanam Piyadassi(beloved of Gods). According to the Buddhist sources Ashoka usurped the throne after killing all rival claimants(99 brothers) and began his reign as a tyrant, but this seems to be untrue as Ashoka in his 5th Major Edict mentions about his family and brothers. Buddhist literature document Ashoka to be the cruel king who underwent a change of heart after experiencing the Battle of Kalinga(261BC). After the war he embraced Buddhism. He became benevolent king, driving his administration to make a just and bountiful environment for his subjects.

He was the son of Bindusar and Subhadrangu. Right from his childhood Ashoka showed great promise in the field of administration . Bindusar impressed by his skill and knowledge appointed him as the governor of Ujjain/Avanti. Different sources produces different titles of him a few of the are- Ahokvardhan(vishnupurana), Buddhashakya(Maski inscription), Magadhadhiraj(Bhabru inscription), Maharajkumar(Pangudaria inscription ), Piyadassi king(Barabar cave inscription), Devnampiyadassi(Rumendai, Nigliva and Girnar inscription).

Kalinga War(261BC)

After becoming a ruler Ashoka fought a single battle that was the battle of Kalinga. According to Romila Thappar Ashoka chose to attack over Kalinga inoder to gain his control over the prosperous trade of Kalinga. This war is mentioned in the 13th Major Rock Edict. Ashoka fought this battle in the 8th year of his reign in 261BC. Nandaraj was the contemporary ruler of Kalinga(mentioned in Hathigumpha inscription). In this battle almost one lakh people lost their lives and almost one lakh fifty thousand people were captivated. All this bloodshed had a deep impact on Ashoka which ultimately changed his personality from a warrior to a saint as a result of which he gave up the policy of Digvajaya and adopted the policy of Dhammavijaya. This was the turning point of Magadha‟ imperialistic spread which was started by Bimbisara with the victory of Anga came to an end with the victory of Kalinga. Kalinga was later made the part of Mauryan empire and was divided into two parts i.e upper Kalinga(capital-Tosali), southern Kalinga(capital- Samapa) for the administrative convenience.

Ashoka’s Dhamma

Initially Ashoka followed Brahmin religion. It is said about Ashoka and Bindusara that they use to feed to 60,000 brahmins daily(Mahavamsha). But after the Kalinga war he converted himself to Buddhism. According to Srilankan chronicle it was Nigrodha who taught about Buddhism to Ashoka . According to Divyavadana and Huen-Tsang Samudra(Balpandit) an ex-merchant from Shravasti helped Ashoka in conversion to Buddhism and Upgupta tought him Buddhism. After embracing Buddhism he remained a simple adorer for 2.5years. Then he entered Buddhist sangha and became a Bhikshu Gatik, those who lived for sometime in viharas are known as Bhikshu Gatik. But he never became a Buddhist monk rather always remained an adorer.

Ashoka gained fame in the world due to his Dhamma. The Sanskrit word Dharma is called Dhamma in Prakrit . The basic subject of all the inscriptions of Ashoka is his policy of Dhamma. The definition of Dhamma is produced by Ashoka in his 2nd and 7th pillar edict. Inorder to influence his subjects to follow it Ashoka mentioned a few good points of Dhamma in his inscriptions such as:

· No killing of humans.

· No destruction of properties.

· To serve and respect parents and adults.

· To respect the mentors and teachers.

· Good behavior with the slaves and servants.

· To spend less.

· To preserve less.

After the Kalinga war Ashoka began to talk about Dhammaghosha in place of Bherighosha. In the 13th Major Rock Edict Ashoka considers Dhammavijaya to be the greatest victory. Romila Thappar is of view that Ashoka adopted this policy of Dhamma inorder to maintain a religious unity in his huge empire but it turned out to be a failure in the long run as the situation and the competition to gain the power kept on increasing gradually. A few historians compare Ashoka‟s Dhamma to the Southern victory of Samudragupta, Sindh victory of Harshavardhana. Ashoka was the first ruler in the world history carried out this policy of Dhamma imperialist i.e victory without violence.

Steps taken by Ashoka to spread his Dhamma:

· Beginning of Dhamma-yatra:

Ashoka began Dhamma-yatra in the place of Vihara-yatra. He visited Bodhgaya in the 10th year of his reign((259BC) and Lumbini in the 20th year of his reign(249BC). Divyavadan gives a detailed description of his Dhamma-yatra. It is believed that Ashoka spent almost 256 nights in his Dhamma-yatra.

· Appointment of royal officials for the propagation of Dhamma:

For the propogation of Dhamma Ashoka appointed a new category of ministers named „Dhammamahamatra‟. In his 5th Major Rock Edict Ashoka mentions about the appointment of royal officials in the 13th year of his reign(256BC). Besides Dhammamahamatras other officials such as Yukta, Rajukka, Pradeshika etc too were given the responsibility of propagating the principles of Dhamma.

· Organization of Dharmashravana and Dharmopadesha:

In order to propagate the principles of Dhamma various officials visited to different parts of the empires as well as world and influenced people to adopt it.

The Mahavamsha gives the list of the names of propagators of Dhamma who went to numerous places inside and outside the country after 3rd Buddhist council to spread the principles of Dhamma . They are:

§ Majjhantika- Kashmir and Gandhar.

§ Mahadeva-Mahishmandala.

§ Rakkshita- Banvasi.

§ Majjhima-Himalaya region.

§ Sona and Uttara-Suvarnabhumi.

§ Maharakshita-Greek countries.

§ Dharmarakshita-Aparantaka(Sindh, Kathiawar).

§ Mahadharmarakshita- Maharashtra.

§ Mahendra and Sangamitra-Srilanka.

The list of the names of these Dharmapracharakas are also found in Deepvansha and Samantpasadika. The stupa number 2 of Sanchi stupa also bares the names of 10 pracharakas.

Thus, according to H.C Raichaudhary Ashoka he was as strong as Chandragupta Maurya, as versatile as

Samudragupta was and was as patient as Akbar. He was famous among his subject for his works of welfare. He was the first one to teach the principle of „live and let live‟ and political violence to be against the religion to the world. He initially became the follower of Buddhism and spent a huge sum of money in its propagation as a result of which Buddhism soon became a widely followed religion. Hence, despite giving up the policy of war and imperialism he still managed to consolidate his huge empire received by him in legacy, thus, Ashoka is always remembered among the great rulers of Indian history.

Mauryan society, Art and Economy:

Varna system:

Varna system had completely developed during the time of Mauryas. There were four types of Varna i.e Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra and their work was decided according to their Varna . Brahmins were the uppermost among all the four Varnas then Kahtriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras respectively. Apart from these four Varnas Kautilya in his Arthashastra talked about Varnashankaras such as Nishad, Magadh, Sut, Veg, Chandals, etc. Kautilya considered them to be shudras.

Megasthenese described the Mauryan society in detail. According to him, the ancient Mauryan society consisted of seven divisions such namely philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans, magistrates and councilors. According to him philosophers were first in this system and last were the councilors as according to their population councilors were less in number. Megasthenese talked about two types of philosophers first one was Brokamen i.e household philosophers and the second one was Saramen i.e sanyasi philosopher. In the time of any crisis or natural calamity they use to do predictions and make people aware of the coming catastrophe.

According to Megasthenese no one could marry the girl or boy of any other caste and no one could adopt the occupation of other caste but philosophers were exception to this. According to Diodorus, artisans were free from taxation because they were the servants of government or state. During this time shudras were given the right of Varta. Kautilya considered shudras as farmers.

Condition of women:

In comparison to Smriti age their condition was better during the Mauryan age. They the right to remarriage and Niyog. But they were not allowed to go outside without the prior permission of her husband . Kautilya talked about 8 types of marriage.

I. Brahma vivah- A Brahma marriage is where a boy is able to get married once he had completed his studenthood or Brahmacharya. Brahma marriage has the most supreme position of the eight types of Hindu matrimony. But

the girl‟s father would make sure that the boy whom he wishes to marry his daughter must have the knowledge of Vedas.

II. Daivya Vivah- In this type of marriage girl‟s family waited for a specific time to get her married. Incase if the girl doesn‟t get a suitable groom she would be married to a place where sacrifices are conducted.

III. Arsha Vivah- In this type of marriage the bride was married in exchange of two cows.

IV. Prajapatya Vivah- this is something like a present day arrange marriage. Monetary transactions are not a part of the prajapatya marriage.

V. Gandharva Vivah- It was similar to love marriage.

VI. Asura Viva- In this marriage there is no compatibility between the bride and the groom rather the girls is exchanged in lieu of money.

VII. Rakshasa Vivah - In this type of marriage the groom forged battle with the bride‟s family, win over them and carry the bride away to convince her to marry him. Due to the forcible attempt it is not considered as right.

VIII. Paishaya Vivah- In this type of marriage the bride was forced against her wish to marry. The man captivated the girl of his choice and intoxicated her and married her while she remained unconscious.

Kautilya considered divorce as salvation. Both husband and wife had the right to take divorce. Kautilya considered women to be Anishkasini and Asuryapansaya. There were also some other category of women such as:

a) Ganika(courtesans)- They were appointed by the state.

b) Rupajiva- They did independent prostitution. They use to pay tax to the state. They had their own organization and its head were known as Bandhikposhaka. They who served wine were known as Peyshalrupa. Kautilya suggested them to live in the southern part of the empire.

c) Samrangniya(bodyguards)- Kautilya and Megasthenese both mentioned about them. They were the female bodyguard of Chandragupta Maurya.

Sati system and Slave system:

Slave system was prevalent in the society. Kautilya mentioned nine types of slaves . According to him Aryans cannot be slaves in any condition. Only Malechas and non-aryans could be made slaves. But according to Megasthenese there was no slavery in India. According to Kautilya , son or daughter of any slave with the king would be considered as his legitimate child. Kautilya has not given any information about sati system. But Strabo mentioned that sati system was prevalent among the Kath tribes of Punjab.

Entertainment / Amusement:

There were several ways of entertainment such as hunting, acting, magic, drama, painting, etc. Citizens use to entertain themselves through Vihara-yatra, Samaj and Pravahana. Pravahana was a social function which included a gathering when organized.

Mauryan Art and Architecture:

The origin if monumental stone sculpture and architecture in the Indian subcontinent goes back to the Harappan civilization. However, after the decline of Harappan civilization, there is a long gap and it is only in the Mauryan period that monumental stone sculpture and architecture appeared on the scene again.

Court Art:

· Royal Buitldings:

The Greek historian Megasthenese described the palaces of the Mauryan empire as one of the greatest creation of mankind and Chinese travelers Fa-Hian called Mauryan palaces as god gifted monuments or the monuments built by god not by humans. About Patliputra Megasthenese mentions that towns were surrounded by wooden wall where a number of holes were created to let the arrow pass by. A ditch was dug with the size of 60feet and 600 feet wide along with the wall. The town had 64 entrances and 570 towns.

The royal assembly building situated in Kumhrars was a hall with 80 pillars. Its roof and floor were made of woods and its size was 140 feet long and 120 feet wide . Patanjali also mentioned Chandragupta‟s Rajsabha in his Mahabhashya. Arian/Eriyan compared Chandragupta‟s palace with the buildings of Susa and Ekbatan.

· Pillars:

The majestic free standing Ashokan pillars symbolize the axis of the world that separated heaven and earth. Ashoka mainly used these pillars for the propagation of Dhamma. Ashokan pillars are quite similar to each other in form and dimension. They are made of Red Sand Stone at Chunar(Mirzapur). They are considered to be monolithic with a height 12 to 14 meters. Ashoka‟s first pillar was found fron Vaishali known as Koluha pillar. In terms of art and architecture Sarnath pillar of Ashoka is the best example of it. The smallest pillar is Rummendei pillar and the safest pillar till now is Lauriya Nandangarh pillar.

There are two types of pillars:

i. Inscribed pillars.

ii. Non-inscribed pillars.

There are 10 pillars which have inscriptions written on them. Kaushambi pillar, Vaishali pillar, Rampurva pillar and Sankisha pillars are non-inscribed pillars. Basically Ashokan pillars are divided in four categories:

i. Shaft

ii. Capital/bell

iii. Platform/ Abacus

A cylindrical bolt joins the top of the shaft to the capital – a stone carved in the shape of an inverted lotus(bell capital). On top of this is abacus(platform) which supports the crowning animal or animals. The abacus is square and plain in earlier pillars and circular and curved in later ones. The motifs associated with the Ashokan pillars have a rich and varied symbolism.

Motifs associated with pillars:

a. One Lion- It appears on the pillers of Vaishali, Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva pillars.

b. Elephant – An elephant capital was found at Sankisha.

c. Bull- It was found on the Rampurva pillars.

d. Four Lions- On Sarnath and Sanchi pillars.

· Caves :

The Mauryan period saw the beginning of rock cut cave architecture. The Barabar and Nagarjuni hills contain several caves which are built by Ashoka and Dasharatha. The caves are simple but have highly polished interiors. The only sculpture ornamentation is a relief carving on the doorway of a cave known as Lomas Rishi Cave. The doorway is modeled after the wooden ones. Over the entrance are twp bands of relief carvings. The upper one has a lattice work design, the lower one has a lattice work design showing elephants approaching stupas. These caves were dedicated by Ashoka and Dashratha to the Ajivakas.

· Stupas :

Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from Vedic period. The word stupa comes two times in Rig veda. It is a symbol of Mahaparinirvana of Buddha and is also considered as axis of universe. Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular dome and a Harmika and a Chhatra on the top. A circular terrace(medhi) enclosed by a railing, surrounds the dome, on which the faithful are to circumbulate in a clockwise direction and this gallery is known as Pradakshinapath. The entire structure is enclosed by a low wall called Vedika, which is punctuated at the four cardinal points by Toranas(gateways).

The core of stupa was built using unburnt bricks while the outer surface was made by using burnt bricks. The toranas were decorated with wooden sculptures . In stupas mainly death remains were kept. Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas. Piprahwa stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.

There are several important stupas which are built by Ashoka for example: Bharhut stupa, Sanchi stupa, Dharmarajjika stupa at Sarnath and Taxila, Bodhgaya stupa and Bairat stupa. Ashoka reign marked an important stage in the history of Buddhist stupa architecture.

· Viharas:

The Viharas in India were originally constructed to shelter the monks during the rainy season, when it became difficult for them to lead the wanderer‟s life. In Patliputra Ashoka built Ashokaram vihara and Kakuttaram Vihara.

Folk Art:

· Stone Sculpture:

Several large stone sculptures have been found at various sites in and around Patna , Mathura , Madhya Pradesh and other places. Many of them represent Yaksha and Yakshi. Other important examples of stone sculptures include the statue of a nude male figure found at Lohanipur at Patna. It is carved out of Chunar sandstone and have a polished surface. Didarganj Yakshi was found at Didarganj village at Patna . The earliest mention of Yakshi can be found in Silpaddikaram, a tamil text.

· Terracotta:

They flourished with the expansion of the urban centers. They include male and female figurines, animals and carts. They are made of mud and are mostly found from Ayodhya. Pottery pf the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished Ware(NBPW). Kosambi and Patliputra were the centres of NBPW pottery.

Foreign influence on Mauryan Art:

Is there any foreign influence on Mauryan Art or not? Is a matter of controversy Several historians like Spooner, John Marshall and Niharranjan Ray accept the influence of foreigners on the Mauryan art by giving following points:

i. It has been suggested that Ashoka got the idea of inscribing his proclamations on the pillars from Persians.

ii. The foreign influence has been identified in the polished surface of the Ashokan pillars and the animal motifs.

iii. It has been pointed out that the word dipi and lipi occur in the inscriptions of Darius as well as Ashoka.

But the above facts cannot be accepted completely. Historians have also drawn attention to the many differences between the Mauryan and the Persian arts:

i. The pillars of Persian art are built of separate segments of stone whereas, the Mauryan pillar is monolithic.

ii. Mauryan pillars does not have any base whereas, Persian pillars do have base.

iii. The Mauryan type abacus and independent animals carved in the pillars are absent in the Persian art.

While there may be some similarities in specific features, the effect of the whole is completely different. Moreover, while having pillars inscribed with his messages on Dhamma, Ashoka transformed them into epigraphic monument of unique cultural meaning.

:

Revenue System and Taxation:

The primary source of revenue for the state was land revenue. The royal share of the produce of the soil is known as Bhaga generally amounted to one-sixth. It was based on the land used by each individual cultivator, not on the village as a whole , and also in accordance with the quality of the land. Asoka reduced it to one-eighth of the produce in the district of Lumbini where lord Buddha was born. There are two types of lands:

1. State land/ Rajkiya Bhoomi- the income derived from this land is known as Sita. Those farmers who used their own seeds and farming tools for doing agriculture use to keep half of the produce to themselves and those farmers who were provided with seeds and farming by the state were allowed to keep one-third or one-fourth with themselves and rest part was sent to the state.

2. Private land/ Niji Bhoomi- the income derived from this land is known as Bhaga. This land belonged to the farmers . They had to pay one-fourth or one-sixth as tax.

Tax was collected both in cash and kind. Rajukka did the measurement of land. Tax free villages were known as Pariharaka and tax free land was known as Udwalik or Parihar. There was also a concept of emergency tax known as Pranay tax . According to Kautilya this tax could only be imposed once during the reign of a king. These were various other sources of income of the state. The state charged toll tax and trade tax on the article sold. There was forest tax, tax on intoxicants, mine tax, irrigation tax,etc.

Under the Mauryas, some groups of the people were exempted from taxes. Brahmanas , students, women, blind, deaf,etc were exempted from taxation.

Agriculture:

Most important feature of the economy was agriculture. According to Kautilya is the best industry. Kautilya mentioned about three crops in a year whereas Megasthenese mentions about two types of crops. The economy of the state was based on agriculture, animal husbandry and trade. These three were all together known as Varta. Basically the Mauryan economy was agrarian and the majority of the people were agriculturist. It was during the Mauryan period that the transition to agriculture was completed in India and agriculture became the basic economic activity of the people. The principal crops were rice, barley, millet and wheat. There are also references to sugarcane, fruits and vegetables.

Industries:

The prime industry during the Mauryas were spinning and weaving yarns. Madura, Aparant, Kalinga, Kashi, Vatsa and Mahishmati are mentioned as important cotton textile centre in Kautilya‟s Arthashastra . Cloth industries were regulated by state. Kautilya mentions three varieties of Dukula which were the products of Vanga and Pundra. In the same context Kautilya mentions linen fabrics of Kasi and Pundra. Bengal , Kamrupa and Banaras were the chief regions famous as centres of textile industry.

As regards to costlier textiles, there were references to silk cloth. Kautilya mentions Kauseya along with Chinese fabric of Chinese manufacture. That shows that silk of Chinese origin competed with those made in India. The manufacture of wool was an old and indigenous industry. Kautilya refers to varieties of fabrics of sheep‟s wool. Wood work is a very old Indian industry. The art of the carpenter had attained a high skill. The perfection of the craft in the Mauryan period can be seen in the wooden platform excavated near Patna.

Communication and Transport:

Roads and ports were important ways of communication. There were mainly four roads:

1. Uttarapath- Purushpur to Tamralipti. According to Megasthenese this road was 1300 miles long. It was constructed by Chandragupta Maurya and during the reign of Sher Shah Suri this road was known as Sadak-i- azam. During the time of Lord Auckland it was known as Grand Trunk Road.

2. Dakshinapath- Shravasti to Pratishthan.

3. The third road connected Bhrigukacch to Mathura.

4. The fourth road began from Champa to Kaushambi.

Ports:

Barbairikam- It was located in Sindh , Bhrigukacch(Bharoach)- Greeks called it Berigaja, sopra, these three ports were situated in the western parts of the empire. Tamralipti was the important port on the eastern side . Mauryans had trade relations with Babylonia,. Niarcus and Arian mentioned that Indian traders used to wear shoes of white leather and sell Mukta(pearls) in the markets of Greece. Kautilya in his Arthashastra mentioned about the import duties which was 10% on the imported goods. State also participated directly in trade and commerce. State had monopoly over some products such as wine, salt, mine, ships, forest,etc. The highest authority of trade was known as Panyadhyksha.

Trade and Commerce:

The rise of the Nandas and the Mauryas helped greatly to improve India‟s inland and foreign trade. External trade was carried on with Syria, Egypt, Greece,etc. in the west. After the conquest of Kalinga with its sea port on the eastern coast of India. It was carried on with the countries of South-East Asia and China. The state controlled foreign trade and licenses were given for that purpose. The chief articles of export were spices, pearls, diamonds, sandalwoods, ivory, cotton cloth, silk yarn, muslin, etc. The principal imports were linen, silver, gold, dry fruits, etc.

The Mauryan state exercised a rigid control over all trade and industry. The superintendent of commerce(panyadhyaksha) fixed the prices of commodities and intervened wherever there was a glut of any commodity. An important aspect of Mauryan economy was the state monopoly of mining and metallurgy. It was a source of great income. The superintendent of mining was Akradhyaksha whose duty was to prospect for new mines and reopen old and disused ones. The state enjoyed unrestricted monopoly in the trade of salt and superintendent looked after salt mines.

There was a superintendent of iron and he looked after the manufacture of things from iron.

Weights and Measures:

Dron- to weight the grains, Nivartan- to measure land, Aratni- to measure rain, Suvarnamashak/ Rattika was the smallest unit of measurement. Manadhyaksha worked under Pautvadhyaksha did the supervision of weights and measurement.

Coins:

In Arthashastra coins were called as „Roop‟. Other types of coins are:

1. Nishaka/Suvarna- Gold coins.

2. Karshapan/ Dharan/ Pann- silver coin.

Pann was the major coin of Mauryas. It was regulated by the state. These are also called punch marked coins. Several images such as of snakes, peacock, trees were punched on these coins. The coins had only images and did have any information or inscription written on it.

3. Mashak/ kakini- there were copper coins.

In Arthashastra it is mentioned that there were state minting factories also and its head was known as Lakshanadhyaksha. Rupdarshaka was known as the examiner of coins. The economic month of Mauryas started from July.

The Mauryan Administration:

The Mauryas organized a huge administrative system. A detailed account of it is produced in the Indica of Megasthenese and Arthashastra of Kautilya. Chandragupta Maurya was not only a ruler but also a capable administrator. The administrative set-up established by him continued and his successors and no change was felt necessary except that Ashoka tried to liberalize it further and elaborated the public duties of the state officials. The basic principles of Mauryans lost their hold over the administration.

King:

The king was the pivotal head of the state . He had legislative, executive and judicial power. He was the superme commander of the army and planned military operations with Commander-in-chief. There are no references to any election of kings in contemporary records, either indigenous or foreign. Usually, the eldest son succeeded to the throne. Kautilya put great emphasis on the education and training of the king in the art of governance and administration.

According to him, the body of politics gets diseased if the king lacks discipline and is ignorant. Hence, the king must be introduced with the four branches of human knowledge i.e Anviksaki(philosophy), Trayi(the three Vedas), Varta(economics), Dandaniti(science of governance). The king should practice self-control and conquer just, anger, greed, pride, haughtiness and vainglory.

In the highly centralized administration king use to appoint ministers, high officials and established a well planned system of supervision and inspection. King was assisted by his council of ministers which were headed by Mantriparishadadhyaksha. The Mantriparishada was also head of the civil servants called Adhyakshas or Amatyas who kept in touch with all sections of the society and made a highly skilled secretariat divided intoseveral departments. Some of these departments and their Adhyakshas are listeed below:

Sannid

The Mauryan kings upon the following advice of Kautilya “in the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king, in their welfare, his welfare, he should not consider good which pleases himself, he should consider good that

pleases his subjects.” The king had a strong bodyguard. He was protected by a platoon of 24 elephants when he went out for hunting or inspection.

Ministers:

Next to the king, minister occupied an important place in the politics. The view of Kautilya is that real sovereignty is to be achieved by three fold powers i.e Mantrisakti(statesmanship), Prabhusakti(treasury), Utashsakti(energy and

enthusiasm). According to Kautilya “ sovereignty is possible only with assistance. A single wheel can never move, hence he shall employ ministers and hear their opinion. According to him ministers are the eye of king.”

The council of ministers is called Parishad. Kautilya refers to two kinds of ministers i.e the Mantrins and the Amatyas. The Mantrins constituted the inner circle of the Parishad which corresponded to the modern cabinet. They included the Prime Minister, the Purohita, the Commander-in-chief and the Yuvraj. Dwarika, Antar vamsika, Prashasta, Samharta and other Amatyas constituted the outer circle of Parishad. Policies were framed by the cabinet while the Amaytas carried them out. In addition to the Amatyas the Mantri Parishad included the leaders of the Paur-Janapada. They were called Mahamatyas. Kautilya was in the favour of of a small cabinet. He advised the king to consult three or four ministers as advice of one was not desirable. The ministers were no doubt directly responsible to the king for the due discharge of their duties.

Paura-Janapada:

The Paura Janapada was the assembly of the people of the town and the country. This assembly could demand Anguttaras or favours from the king in times of crisis . This assembly could undertake social work and give relief to the poor and helpless . The Paura Janapada acted as a powerful check on royal authority. The provinces were also known as

„chakra.‟ Ashoka himself used to visit the provinces to check the proper law and order. The broader division of the provinces are as follows:

· Northern Uttarapath(Taxila)

· Western Avantipatha(Ujjain)

· Central Province(Magadha)

· Eastern Prachyapath(Toshali/Kalinga)

· Southern Dakshinapatha(Suvarnagi)

In each province there was a governor or viceroy who was sometimes a prince of royal blood. The princes, when appointed as viceroys were called Kumar Mahamatras while the rest of the viceroys were simply designated as Mahamatras. It is believed that there was an advisory committee like council of ministers at the centre to help every Mahamatra. There were many other officers who helped him to carry on the administration. According to Dr.Altekar, the provincial government was required to maintain law and order, collect taxes for the central government cooperate in the work of its different departments and keep a watch over the feudatories and frontier people. Provinces were further divided into mandals(commissionaries) and its head was known as Pradeshta.

District Administration/ Aahar/ Vishay:

Each was administered by officers i.e Pradeshika, Yukta and Rajukka. Pradeshika was senior and Rajukka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to both of them. It was duty of Pradeshika to tour the kingdom every five year and collect details of the administration. The revenue and general administration was carried on in the districts by Sthanikas and Gopas with their own staffs of officials. The Gopa had charge of five to ten villages in which he supervised the maintenance of boundaries, registered gifts, sales and mortgages and kept an accurate census of the people and their material resources. The Sthanika had similar duties in the district under his charge and the Gopa necessarily functioned under him. The Sthanikas were responsible to Samaharta who commanded the services of Pradeshtris who were identical with the Pradeshikas of the Ashoka inscription for the supervision of local administration. In the district administration there were superintendent of different grades for different departments.

Village Administration:

The village was the smallest unit of administration incharge of an official called Gramika . He was not the paid servant of the crown but an elected official of the village . That explains the omission of his name from the salaried list of officials given by Kautilya. Village elders(gram-viddhas) are often mentioned in the Arthshastra and they had a share in guiding and assisting the people generally and assisting the officials of the government in disposing of petty disputes arising in the village.

Municipal Administration:

Megasthenese gives an elaborate description of the administration of Patliputra onl and it may be presumed that other important towns were governed in a similar manner. According to Megasthenese, Patliputra was controlled by a municipal commission of 30 members who were divide into 6 boards of five members each. The first board was concerned with the industrial arts. Its duty was to check adulteration and fix the rates of fair wages; the second board was concerned with foreigners. Foreigners were closely watched by the officials who provided suitable lodgings, escorts and medical attendance, the third board was concerned with systematic registration of births and deaths, the fourth board was concerned with trade and commerce. It regulated sales and enforced the use of duly stamped weights and measures, the fifth board was responsible for the supervision of manufactures, and the function of sixth board was the collection of tithes on the value of goods sold. All the municipal commissioners in their collective capacity were required to control all the affairs of the city and keep in order the markets, temples, harbours and public works.

Judicial Administration:

The Mauryan state had very efficient judicial system. The king was the fountain head of justice. There were two classes of courts. Dharmasthiya court and Kantakshodhan court. Dharmasthiya(diwani) were civil courts which decided cases relating to contract, gift, aggrement, sales, marriages,etc. Kantakshodhan(faujdari) courts were criminal courts which dealt with the cases of theft, robbery, murder, sex offences,etc. The supreme court was at the capital and was presided by the king as the chief justice. There were subordinate courts at the headquarters of the provinces, divisions and districts. Villages had in addition popular courts consisting of village elders who tried minor cases. The Mauryan penal code was very severe. It sanctioned torture, trial by ordeal, mutilation of limbs,etc. Capital punishment was in vogue under Ashoka even after his conversion to Buddhism

Espionage:

Kautilya had put a great emphasis on the espionage system which was intended to promote progress, efficiency and stability in the state. Both men and women used to work as spies. During Mauryan period they had several names such as:

Gudha-purush- In Kautilya‟s Arthashastra

Mahamatyapasharpa was the head of the spies . Mainly there were two types of spies:

1. Sanstha- they were stationed at one place.

2. Sanchara- they used to wander in the empire.

Spies were kept not only by the emperor but also by all the important officials of the state. They were deputed to

foreign countries also. With the help of spies , the emperor kept himself informed with all the relevant affairs of the state.

Military Organisation:

The Mauryas maintained a large well equipped army which was three times larger than the Nandas. The Mauryan army consisted of four wings i.e the infantry, the cavalry, the elephants and chariots. The fighting force of the Mauryan government consisted of 60,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry and 9000 elephants. The Arthashastra refers to camel and ass corps as well. The administration of the army was looked after by a war office consisting of 30 members who were divided six boards of 5 members each :

1. The first was incharge of the navy.

2. The second board was concerned with transport.

3. The third board dealt with infantry.

4. The fourth board was concerned with cavalry.

5. The fifth board was incharge of the chariot.

6. The sixth board was incharge of elephants.

Senapati was the head of the department. Kautilya divided the army into three parts :

1. The permanent army of the king.

2. The mercenary army.

3. The armies of the municipalities

In the words of Dr. G.M Bongard- Levin, the Mauryan age is marked by the spread of iron, the development of agriculture, crafts and trade, the growth and towns, etc. Kautilya names the science of economy among the four basic sciences, comprising the teaching of agriculture, cattle- raising and trade. The use of iron enabled new areas to be developed in particular, the densely wooden tracts of land along the Ganges.

Decline and Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire:

The Mauryan Empire was the first empire in the history of India. It witnessed many great rulers such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka who carried out their rule in their own unique ways and maintained a huge empire for decades. But the empire turned unfortunate in its last few years and began to decline due to the following reasons:

· The neutral policies of Ashoka failed to support supremacyof the Brahmins:

This view was given by Pandit Harprashad Shastri. According to him Ashoka‟s policies agitated the Brahmins which led to their anti-reactions and ultimately to the Brahmanic revolution. This is proved by the murder of Brihadratha the last Mauryan emperor by his Brahmin commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga. But this view was condemned by Hem Chandra Rai Chaudhary who produced that if the policies if Mauryas was anti-brahmin they would never have a Brahmin as their commander-in-chief. In the real sense it was only an armed revolt for the usurpation of power which should not be viewed as a religious battle.

· The non-violent and peaceful policies of Ashoka:

This was the view of Hemchandra Rai chaudhary. He has criticized Ashoka by calling him a ruler away from reality and a dreamer. Though this cannot be considered as being completely as he did not completely adopt the policy of peace. As in his 13th Major Rock Edict he talks about the punishment to be given to those who did not follow Dhamma. Bhandarkar too condemned his policy of Dhamma and considered it to be a reason for the decline of Mauryan empire.

· Exploitative rule of provincial Amatyas:

There are evidences of local revolts during the time of Bindusara as well as Ashoka at Taxila. The subjects of Taxila declared that they were not against the emperor Ashoka but were against the local Amatyas. This depicts that the Amatyas were turning despotic gradually. According to Niharranjan Rai the main reason behind the decline of Mauryan empire was the revolts of the subjects.

· Economic decline:

This view was given by D.D Koshambi. It is clear that the Mauryas exhibited a huge empire. Thus, they maintained a huge amount of taxes . On the other hand Ashoka gave huge grants to the Buddhist monks and monasteries. According to Divyavadana when Ashoka was denied to use his royal treasury for grants he began to make those grants using his personal property which led him to empty his personal wealth as well as the royal treasury. According to Patanjali the Mauryan kings in the end began to sell the idols of their Gods and Goddess in order to fill their empty treasury. Thus, this became a major factor for their decline.

· Extreme centralization of administration and power:

According to Romila Thappar there was a lack of sovereignty among all the administrative units as right from centre to the lowest unit of administration was intervened by the state. A strong network of bureaucrats and spies established in every nooks and corners of the empire. This complicated the whole system. After the death of Ashoka the weak successors led to the weakening of the state which led to the transformation of administration from centralized to decentralized and ultimately contributed to the decline of the empire.

· The spread of new scientific knowledge to the extreme parts of India:

It is believed that the Magadha empire witnessed a few new discoveries and inventions in its last decades for example use of coins, cross sectional and mixed crops cultivation, etc. Prof. Ramsharan Sharma is of view that industrial and scientific development is a factor for the development and building of any empire thus, when these developments began to reach to extreme parts of India which led to the rising of new powers for example Satvahanas. These new powers led to the weakening of Mauryas.

· Weak successors and disintegration of the empire:

One of the most important factor behind the success of the Magadha imperialism was the the rise of strong rulers one after another but after Ashoka the graph declined and weak successors succeeded him one after another. Thus, they took the empire towards its decline. Moreover, after the death of Ashoka the empire was disintegrated which ultimately led to its decline.

The Mongol Empire

Mongol empire, empire founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. Originating from the Mongol heartland in the Steppe of central Asia, by the late 13th century it spanned from the Pacific Ocean in the east to the Danube River and the shores of the Persian Gulf in the west. At its peak, it covered some 9 million square miles (23 million square km) of territory, making it the largest contiguous land empire in world history.

Origin and growth

Genghis Khan

The year 1206, when Temüjin, son of Yesügei, was elected Genghis Khan of a federation of tribes on the banks of the Onon River, must be regarded as the beginning of the Mongol empire. This federation not only consisted of Mongols in the proper sense—that is, Mongol-speaking tribes—but also other Turkic tribes. Before 1206 Genghis Khan was but one of the tribal leaders fighting for supremacy in the steppe regions south and southeast of Lake Baikal; his victories over the Kereit and then the Naiman Turks, however, gave him undisputed authority over the whole of what is now Mongolia. A series of campaigns, some of them carried out simultaneously, followed.

Initial conquests

Jiaohe

The first attack (1205–09) was directed against the Tangut kingdom of Hsi Hsia (Xi Xia), a northwestern border-state of China, and ended in a declaration of allegiance by the Xi Xia king. A subsequent campaign was aimed at north China, which at that time was ruled by the Tungusic Jin dynasty. The fall of Beijing in 1215 marked the loss of all the territory north of the Huang He (Yellow River) to the Mongols; during the following years the Jin empire was reduced to the role of a buffer state between the Mongols in the north and the Chinese Song empire in the south. Other campaigns were launched against central Asia. In 1218 the Khara-Khitai state in east Turkistan was absorbed into the empire.

The assassination of Muslim subjects of Genghis Khan by the Khwārezmians in Otrar led to a war with the sultanate of Khwārezm (Khiva) in west Turkistan (1219–25). Bukhara, Samarkand, and the capital Urgench were taken and sacked by Mongol armies (1220–21). Advance troops (after crossing the Caucasus) even penetrated into southern Russia and raided cities in Crimea (1223). The once prosperous region of Khwārezm suffered for centuries from the effects of the Mongol invasion which brought about not only the destruction of the prosperous towns but also the disintegration of the irrigation system on which agriculture in those parts depended. A similarly destructive campaign was launched against Xi Xia in 1226–27 because the Xi Xia king had refused to assist the Mongols in their expedition against Khwārezm. The death of Genghis Khan during that campaign (1227) increased the vindictiveness of the Mongols. The Xi Xia culture, a mixture of Chinese and Tibetan elements, with Buddhism as the state religion, was virtually annihilated.

Britannica Quiz

History: Fact or Fiction?

Cai Wenji

In 1227 the Mongol dominions stretched over the vast regions between the Caspian and China seas, bordering in the north on the sparsely populated forest belt of Siberia and in the south on the Pamirs, Tibet, and the central plains of China. This empire contained a multitude of different peoples, religions, and civilizations, and it is only natural to seek the motivating force behind this unparalleled expansion. Certainly the traditional antagonism between pastoral, nomadic steppe-dwellers and settled agricultural civilizations has to be taken into account. Raids by nomads from the steppe had always occurred from time to time wherever powerful nomadic tribes lived in the proximity of settled populations, but they had not usually taken on the dimensions of a bid for world hegemony or domination as in the case of Genghis Khan’s invasions.

Silk Road

The idea of a heavenly mission to rule the world was certainly present in Genghis Khan’s own mind and in the minds of many of his successors, but this ideological imperialism had no foundation in nomadic society as such. It was most probably due to influences from China where the “one world, one ruler” ideology had a long tradition. The creation of nomad empires in the steppes and the attempts to extend their rule over the more settled parts of central Asia and finally over the whole known world may also have been influenced by the desire to control the routes of intercontinental land trade. The desire for plunder also cannot be ignored, and it was certainly not by accident that the first attacks by nomad federations were usually directed against those states which benefited from the control of trade routes in central Asia such as the famous Silk Road.

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Military practices

Rashīd al-Dīn: Mongol warriors from History of the World

The amazing military achievements of the Mongols under Genghis Khan and his successors were due to superior strategy and tactics rather than to numerical strength. Mongol armies were chiefly composed of cavalry which afforded them a high degree of mobility and speed. Their movements and maneuvers were directed by signals and a well-organized messenger service. In battle they relied mainly on bows and arrows and resorted to man-to-man fighting only after having disorganized the enemy’s ranks. Mongol armaments and tactics were more suited to open plains and flat countries than to mountainous and wooded regions. For the siege of walled cities they frequently secured assistance from artisans and engineers of technically advanced conquered peoples such as Chinese, Persians, and Arabs.

Another factor contributing to the overwhelming success of their expeditions was the skilful use of spies and propaganda. Before attacking they usually asked for voluntary surrender and offered peace. If this was accepted, the population was spared. If, however, resistance had to be overcome, wholesale slaughter or at least enslavement invariably resulted, sparing only those whose special skills or abilities were considered useful. In the case of voluntary surrender, tribesmen or soldiers were often incorporated into the Mongol forces and treated as federates. Personal loyalty of federate rulers to the Mongol khan played a great role, as normally no formal treaties were concluded. The “Mongol” armies, therefore, often consisted of only a minority of ethnic Mongols.

Organization of Genghis Khan’s empire

Genghis Khan

During the early stages of Mongol supremacy, the empire established by Genghis absorbed civilizations in which a strong, unified, and well-organized state power had developed. The social organization of the Mongols was, however, characterized by pastoralism and a decentralized patrilineal system of clans. Antagonism existed between a society of this nature and the subjugated advanced civilizations, between a relatively small number of foreign conquerors and a numerically strong conquered population. In the early phases of conquest, the Mongols usually attempted to impose the social structure of the steppes upon their new subjects. It was customary for the Mongols to enslave a conquered tribe and to present whole communities to distinguished military leaders as a sort of personal appanage. These slaves became sooner or later an integral part of the conquering tribe. In the conquered areas a similar procedure was adopted. Groups of the settled population, usually those living in a certain territory, became the personal property of Mongol military leaders who exploited the local economic forces as they liked. No use was made of the existing state machinery or bureaucracy, and the former political divisions were entirely disregarded. Nor was there any attempt to organize the numerous local Mongol leaders who enjoyed a high degree of independence from the court of the khans. Ruthless exploitation under strong military pressure was therefore characteristic of the early phase of Mongol domination, which may be said to have lasted until about 1234, some seven years after Genghis Khan’s death.

The central power rested with the khan, who was assisted by military and political councilors. No departmental administration was, however, established during the early stages of Genghis Khan’s empire. The highly hierarchized military organization of the Mongols had no political or administrative counterpart. The influence of the councilors, who were appointed by the khan regardless of their nationality, was nevertheless great. It was a former Jin subject, the Khitan Yelü Chucai (1190–1244), a man of high talents with an excellent Chinese education, who dissuaded Genghis from converting the whole of north China into pastureland. Other councilors were Uyghurs, and for some time the Uyghur language was as much used in the court chancery as Mongol. The Uyghur script was also adopted for writing Mongol. The oldest known document in the Mongol language is a stone inscription carved in approximately 1224.

The economy of the conquered areas was not properly organized during the period of conquest. The abolition of highly organized governments gave an opportunity for the exploitation of local production by the Mongol appanage-holders who relied to a great extent on non-Mongol tax-farmers. There was no single financial system for the whole empire or even for large parts of it. The absence of civil organization at the top, the great independence of the various appanages, and the high priority accorded to military affairs had a strongly disintegrating effect and were, at least in the early phases of Mongol rule, detrimental to economic progress and prosperity. The Mongol empire was, under Genghis and his successors, not yet a state in the normal sense of the word but a vast agglomeration of widely different territories held together by military domination.

As the empire grew through new conquests after Genghis’s death, the same pattern repeated itself: a period of military, and at the same time decentralized, rule marked the first stage of Mongol domination. The result was a noticeable variation of practice within the empire. Newly conquered areas were still subject to direct exploitation bearing the imprint of a nomadic and military mentality, but, in those areas which had been subjugated earlier, attempts were made to build up a state machinery and bureaucracy in order to consolidate Mongol rule. This was done mostly in accordance with the traditional administrative system of the individual territory.

This general tendency, together with the absence of an original Mongol concept for ruling a settled population, accounts for the entirely different development that occurred in various countries. This resulted in an empire that may not have been “Mongol” but was a Chinese, Persian, or central Asian empire with a Mongol dynasty. This trend was expressed more in some locations than others because the absorptive power of the various civilizations differed in intensity. In China, for instance, the Mongols could maintain their rule better than elsewhere because the strong Chinese tradition of centralized state power supplied a stable framework of governmental organization.

The original absence of a state concept on the part of the Mongols is reflected in the ruling clan’s attitude to the empire. The empire was considered to be not the khan’s personal property but the heirloom of the imperial clan as a whole. Already in Genghis’s lifetime the empire was divided among his four favourite sons into ulus, a Mongol word which denotes the supremacy over a certain number of tribes rather than a clearly defined territory. Tolui, the youngest, received the eastern part—the original homeland of the Mongols together with the adjacent parts of north China. Ögödei became ruler of the western part of the steppes (modern northern Xinjiang and western Mongolia). Chagatai received the lands of Khara-Khitai (modern northern Iran and southern Xinjiang). The eldest son, Jöchi, followed by his son Batu, ruled over southwest Siberia and west Turkistan (an area later known as the territory of the Golden Horde). To these four Mongol empires a fifth was added when Hülegü, a son of Tolui, completed the conquest of Iran, Iraq, and Syria and became the founder of the Il-Khanid dynasty in Iran. The unity of the Mongol empire was therefore from the beginning undermined by disintegrating factors, and the history of the empire after Genghis’s death may consequently be subdivided into two periods, the first being characterized by relative unity in the empire ruled by a great khan who was recognized by all branches of the royal clan, the second showing a more or less complete independence of the separate empires, which thereafter had no common history.

The period of relative unity (1227–60)

Mongolia: ancient stone tortoise

After the death of Genghis Khan, a kuriltai (also spelled kurultai; “general assembly”) of Mongol nobles was convoked in order to elect the new great khan according to traditional custom. Jöchi, the eldest of Genghis’s heirs, had predeceased his father by six months, and the law of primogeniture was usually observed by the Mongols. Chagatai, the oldest surviving son, was passed over, however, and Ögödei was eventually appointed great khan (1229–41). His residence was Karakorum, on the Orhon River in central Mongolia, whence he directed his campaigns. Yelü Chucai continued to act as his chief adviser, and Chinkai, a Kereit Nestorian Christian, served as head of chancery. Ögödei himself is described in contemporary sources as a man of stern temper, energetic but given to pleasure, and a heavy drinker. His campaigns, like those of his father, were carried out simultaneously under generals acting independently in the field but always directed by orders emanating from the khan himself and transmitted by a messenger system covering practically the whole of Asia.

In east Asia a war was launched against the remnant of the Juchen Jin state in north China. The Jin emperor found himself in a hopeless position because he was attacked from both sides. During the preceding century, the Jin had taken north China from the Song, but the Song subsequently allied themselves with the Mongols. In 1234 the Jin capital of Kaifeng fell through a combined attack by Mongols and Chinese; Aizong, the last Jin emperor, committed suicide.

Campaigns in the west

Batu

In 1236 new campaigns were launched against the west, apparently with the intention of subjugating Russia and even eastern Europe and adding them to the ulus allotted to Batu Khan. The empire of the Volga Bulgars was annihilated in 1237/38, a victory which opened the way to Russia proper. Central and northern Russia at this time consisted of city-states and independent princedoms which fell one by one to the fierce attacks of the Mongol armies. The Mongol advance toward the Baltic Sea was brought to a standstill only by the Russian winter; the rich trading centre of Novgorod was thus one of the few Russian towns not to be sacked. Resistance in Russia ceased after the fall of Kyiv (December 1240). Further raids hit Poland, Galicia, and Volhynia; advance parties even reached Breslaù (Wrocław) in Silesia. A joint force of German and Polish knights under Duke Henry II of Silesia suffered a crushing defeat near Legnica (April 9, 1241), but the Mongols preferred not to penetrate farther into central Germany. Instead, they turned south in order to join forces with their armies operating in Hungary.

The attack on Hungary did not come as a surprise to King Béla IV. The Kipchaks, a Turkic nomad people in southern Russia, had been subject to Mongol rule, but under their chieftain Kuten a great part of them had fled from the Don and Dnieper steppes into Hungary and placed themselves under the protection of the Hungarians. Batu claimed that the Kipchaks were his vassals and asked the king of Hungary to send them back to Russia, announcing his intention to fight Hungary if his request was not granted. When he received no reply, he sent his southern army against Hungary.

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Eurasian steppes

This army, led by Subutai, an able general, succeeded in defeating the Hungarians at Mohi in April 1241. King Béla IV was forced to flee into Croatia. It does not seem that the Mongols ever intended to establish themselves permanently in Silesia and Moravia. In Hungary, however, they began to create a nucleus of Mongol administration and even struck coins, some of which have survived. The Hungarian plains may have appealed to them as possible pasturelands because of their similarity to the grasslands of southern Russia where the Mongols installed themselves permanently (as the later Golden Horde).

During the preceding years Mongol armies had also been operating in Iran, Georgia, and Greater Armenia. The Khwārezm sultan, who had fled before Genghis Khan’s attacks, became ruler of a kingdom in northwestern Iran and tried in vain to defend himself against the Mongols. He was murdered in 1231. Georgia had to recognize Mongol sovereignty in 1236. The advance of the Mongols in Europe and the Near East was, however, stopped by the death of the great khan Ögödei (December 11, 1241). The necessity to be present at the kuriltai, which had to elect a successor, and the necessity to assert their claims made some of the descendants of Genghis change their plans. Batu and his generals gave up whatever territory they had held in eastern Europe. The year 1241 therefore marks a turning point of the greatest importance in European history because in all probability Hungary at least would have become a Mongol dominion but for the sudden death of Ögödei.

Electing a new khan

The election of a new great khan proved difficult because no agreement could be reached. In the meantime Töregene, Ögödei’s widow, ruled by common consent of the Mongol nobles (1242–46). She wished the appointment of her son Güyük but met with bitter opposition from Batu, who believed he had a better claim, as a descendant of Genghis’s eldest son. She succeeded in securing Güyük’s election in 1246. There is an eyewitness account of this election by Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, who happened to be in Karakorum at that time as papal envoy. Güyük himself was, as a person, very different from his rival Batu. He was strongly influenced by Nestorianism and favoured Christian advisers, whereas Batu still adhered to traditional Mongol shamanism and was entirely indifferent to any outside religion. The two rivals began to prepare for war against each other, but Güyük’s premature death (1248) ended both the family feud with Batu and the chance of a Mongol court dominated by Christian influence.

The empire was entrusted to Güyük’s widow Ogul-Gaimish, who ruled as regent for three years before the nobles could reach agreement. Batu himself still showed some eagerness to assume the supreme power of great khan but gave up in the end because of old age and persuaded the Mongol nobles to give their votes to Möngke Khan, son of Tolui. This meant that the overlordship of the empire passed away from the house of Ögödei and went to the descendants of Genghis’s youngest son. The Chagatai branch of the family felt slighted after Möngke’s election (1251), and bitter hostility soon developed between the two families.

The reign of Möngke

Möngke himself had won fame during Batu’s western campaigns and distinguished himself in the field. He was a benevolent monarch and continued Güyük’s policy of universal tolerance toward all religions. In his reign the capital Karakorum reached a splendour which reflected the vastness of the empire. A European guest at the court in January 1254, the French friar Willem van Ruysbroeck left an interesting account of the Mongol capital, where Christian churches, Muslim mosques, and Buddhist temples flourished and envoys from the whole known world met. At the same time, Möngke continued to expand the empire and prepared for the conquest of hitherto unsubdued neighbouring countries. In this he was assisted by his two brothers Hülegü and Kublai. To Hülegü he entrusted the campaign against Iran, of which only a northern province had come firmly under Mongol control.

In 1255 Hülegü started his offensive. He wiped out the resistance of the powerful Assassin sect in 1256 and advanced toward Iraq. Baghdad, the capital of the caliphate, fell to the Mongols in 1258, and the last Abbasid caliph was put to death. These events had a far-reaching influence on the religious situation in the Near East. Christians and Shiʿis welcomed the Mongols because they had been antagonized by the Sunni orthodoxy of the caliphate. In Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor the Christians hoped for a further advance by Hülegü, who was regarded as a protector against their Islamic rulers and whose wife was a Nestorian Christian. In 1259 Hülegü’s armies moved into Syria, took Damascus and Aleppo, and reached the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The road to Egypt seemed open, but in 1260 the Mamluk army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols at the Battle of ʿAyn Jālūt. Egypt was saved and the further expansion of the Mongol empire was blocked.

Election of Kublai

Kublai Khan

At the other end of Asia a campaign with similar success took place against China. The leader was Kublai, whose generals outflanked the Chinese defenses by moving toward Annam via the southwest of China which was occupied by the independent Tai kingdom of Nan-chao. Later on Möngke himself took command of the China campaign (1257). Again, as in 1241, fate intervened and brought Mongol operations to a temporary standstill. Möngke died in August 1259 in the field during the siege of a provincial town in Sichuan. There followed, as usual, an internal feud between various claimants to the title of great khan. Kublai secured his own election while still in the field (1260), but his younger brother Arigböge proclaimed himself khan in Karakorum. Hülegü was too far away and moreover too immersed in his Syrian campaign to exert any influence over the election. He seems, however, to have favoured Kublai, and these two brothers at least remained friendly, although (or because) Kublai’s dominion was so distant and his overlordship therefore more or less nominal.

Mongol empire

The year of Kublai’s accession to the throne marks, in any case, a turning point in the history of the Mongol empires. In theory Kublai was, as grand khan, the ruler of an empire stretching from China and Korea to Iran and southern Russia, but the diversity of the subjugated countries made itself more and more felt. Kublai came to regard himself as a Chinese emperor more than anything else, and similarly the other dominions developed on lines which were less and less Mongol. This tendency may be regarded as concomitant with the conversion of the various khans to other religions, chiefly Islam and Buddhism. In Kublai’s case this conversion from Mongol to Chinese civilization was accentuated by the transfer of his capital to Beijing (1260), which he began to rebuild in 1267. Mongolia was no longer the real centre of the empire, not even of Kublai’s dominions.

The Yuan dynasty in China (1279–1368)

Marco Polo and Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan was one of China’s greatest emperors. He achieved the unification of that country by annihilating the national Song empire (1279). Contrary to former custom, he treated the deposed imperial family well and forbade his generals from resorting to indiscriminate slaughter. After 1279 no new territories were added to the Mongol-Chinese empire, and a pair of attempts to expand Mongol rule to Japan were thwarted by the Kamikaze of 1274 and 1281. None of the later Yuan emperors reached the stature of Kublai. His immediate successor was his grandson, Temür (1295–1307), who was able to keep Mongol rule intact and maintain his position against repeated attacks from the Ögödei branch of Genghis Khan’s family. The rival khan Kaidu was defeated in 1301 and peace was restored in the northwestern parts of the empire.

Although minor rebellions against the government could be still quelled by Mongol troops, the power of the court gradually began to decline. Family feuds and court intrigues weakened the power of later emperors. In several cases boys were enthroned who were nothing but puppets in the hands of ambitious ministers. The decline of the emperors is reflected in their surviving portraits. The influence of Chinese culture made itself more and more felt at court and among some of the Mongol nobility, although other Mongols remained hostile to everything Chinese. The last Mongol emperor, Togon-temür (reigned 1333–68), had become emperor at the age of 13. He had received the rudiments of a Chinese education and was, like some of his predecessors, a pious Buddhist and a benevolent though weak ruler. During the first years of his reign, however, power was in the hands of Bayan, a minister who belonged to the anti-Chinese faction and whose measures deepened the resentment of the educated Chinese against Mongol rule.

Decline of Mongol power in China

The final decline of Mongol power in China and the chaotic conditions during Togon-temür’s reign were but one of the many “times of trouble ” in Chinese history. There was widespread unrest which often took the form of local rebellions against the Mongol authorities. The reasons for this development were chiefly economic, and it was, as usual in China, in the countryside that insurgents first ventured their attacks on the local administration. The situation of the peasantry was in many areas desperate; small farmers and tenants had to shoulder the burden of excessive taxation and corvée duties. The arbitrariness of Mongol nobles and officials caused general resentment among all Chinese.

It appears that the Mongol ruling class was never able to establish satisfactory relations with the agricultural population of China. Their lack of sympathy for agricultural problems was also reflected in the Mongol legislation on hunting: the peasants were forbidden to protect their crops against game animals and had moreover to assist the Mongols in hunting expeditions which invariably caused great damage in the fields. In the large towns, relations between Mongols and Chinese were usually better than in the countryside. Conditions became particularly strained in 1351 when the government proceeded to carry out an enormous plan for water conservation in the Huang He (Yellow River) region, which had been suffering from catastrophic floods. The leaders of local rebellions came without exception from the lower strata of society. They included salt smugglers, petty officials, sectarian leaders, monks, and shamans. In the southeastern provinces, agriculturally the richest and therefore most ruthlessly exploited region of the whole empire, rebellions were particularly numerous. The province of Zhejiang had for centuries been the greatest rice surplus area and Beijing, with its sizable population, had always been dependent on supplies from this region. When the lines of communication between north and south were cut by rebellions, the situation in the capital became precarious. The paper money on which the currency was based became entirely valueless, and the treasury was soon depleted. This again impaired the military efforts of the government.

Effects of Mongol rule

The general impact of Mongol domination over China is difficult to assess. The suspension of literary examinations, the exclusion of Chinese from higher offices, and the resulting frustration of the former ruling class of scholar-officials led to a sort of intellectual eremitism. Traditional forms of Chinese literature and art continued to be practised by a class which was barred from participation in political affairs. The only branches of the civil service where the cooperation of educated Chinese was absolutely indispensable had been those concerned with ritual and historiography. The Mongol language never wholly replaced Chinese as the medium for historiography or for official documents, and most of the inscriptions surviving from the Mongol period are bilingual. Chinese literary life remained remarkably free, perhaps because the ruling minority was indifferent to, or even unable to read, what their subjects wrote in Chinese. It is surprising to see how freely Chinese writers after 1280 expressed their national, loyalist, and anti-Mongol feelings.

The period of Mongol rule over China is, in the field of literature, also marked by a considerable output of drama and of popular novels, written in the vernacular. This phenomenon is, however, not directly connected with Mongol rule, for it is difficult to visualize a Mongol audience in front of a Chinese stage. A social cause, the growing influence and prominence of the merchant class, may have been instrumental. The traders and merchants were among the very few groups in the population who actually benefited from Mongol rule. Another such group comprised the priests of non-Chinese religions (Islam, Christianity, Judaism) who enjoyed the exemption from taxes which was customary in China for the Buddhist and, to a lesser extent, the Daoist clergy. The Mongols themselves, at least at court, gave up their traditional forms of worship and became to a great extent converts to Tibetan Buddhism, which was already flourishing in China under Kublai Khan. The growing influence of Tibetan Buddhism can be seen in the increasing number of Mongols who were given Buddhist names derived from Tibetan. Chinese Buddhism, on the other hand, remained on the whole hostile toward the Tibetan clergy, who were despised not only for their creed but also for being a favourite ally of the invaders. Furthermore, many Chinese Buddhist monasteries were strongholds of Chinese traditional culture. The same is true of Daoism. Although the Daoist clergy had originally been granted the same privileges as the Buddhists, the Daoist religion had already under Kublai begun to suffer from official persecution, chiefly perhaps because the Buddhist clergy regarded Daoism as a dangerous rival and because Daoist sects and monasteries were, not without justification, looked on as centres of secret activities and unbridled nationalism.

All things considered, it may safely be said that Chinese civilization as a whole was influenced surprisingly little by Mongol rule. It was, however, responsible for a certain deviation from accepted standards of ethical behaviour as far as the law and government were concerned. The autocratic and totalitarian features of China under the Ming dynasty are perhaps to be attributed to the fact that the country had been under barbarian rule for more than a century.

The Mongols themselves, taken as a group, remained largely aloof from Chinese culture. A number became proficient Chinese scholars, however, and their poems and calligraphy were on par with native Chinese. The later emperors, after some initial efforts under Kublai, encouraged translations from Chinese into Mongol, and the earliest specimens of printing in Mongol were produced in China. Most of these translations are now lost as a consequence of Ming nationalism, but the few existing fragments, mostly Buddhist texts, are of the highest importance for the history of the Mongol language. The Mongols were expelled from China in or soon after 1368. For the next two centuries they lived in Mongolia just as they had before their conquests: a warlike nomad people with only a few traces of their long sojourn among the Chinese.

Later history of the Mongols

For several centuries after 1368 the Mongols were confined to their original homeland in the steppes, but the memory of their past grandeur and of their domination over China led to intermittent attempts to regain their lost position. The Ming emperors on the other hand regarded the Mongols as their subjects and Mongolia as a part of their empire. The history of the Mongols in these years is, apart from the usual feuds between rival clans, dominated by their relations with China. The early Ming emperors tried repeatedly, but without lasting success, to occupy the plains of Mongolia. In 1388 Toquz Temür, grandson of Togon-temür, was defeated by a Chinese expeditionary force in northeastern Mongolia near Lake Buir. A generation later, in 1410, another Chinese expedition reached the Onon River and defeated Oljai Temür (reigned 1403–12). Oljai later lost his hegemony to the Oirat clan. The power of the Oirats reached its height in the mid-15th century when Esen Taiji (reigned 1439–55) launched a campaign against the Ming empire (1449). Esen succeeded in capturing the Ming emperor Zhengtong and took him as a prisoner of war to Mongolia. He even besieged Beijing, but the stubborn resistance of the Chinese garrison, together with dissension in the Mongol camp and skilful Chinese diplomacy, brought about a turning of the tide.

Mongol empires in central Asia

The Chagatai line of Genghis Khan’s family had received the ulus consisting of the former Khara-Khitai empire stretching east of Lake Balkhash, including the whole Tarim Basin as well as Transoxania and Afghanistan. Their empire had a predominantly Turkic population, and there the traditions of the steppe remained much stronger than in the contemporary Mongol empire in China. The civilization of the Muslim oasis-dwellers influenced the nomadic character of the Chagatai empire only to a very limited degree, and the expansionist tendencies inherited from the earlier rulers made themselves repeatedly felt. The history of the Chagatai empire seems rather confused because there are few reliable sources; even the reign dates of the khans cannot always be ascertained. From 1267 to 1301 the Chagatai empire was subject to Ögödei’s descendant Kaidu, and it was only after the fall of the latter that the Chagatai khans regained their independence.

In foreign policy the Chagatai empire was notable for its continuous attempts to conquer India by way of Afghanistan and the Punjab Plain. The conquest of India had been one of the aims of Genghis himself but was soon abandoned in favour of other campaigns. The Chagatai rulers on various occasions sent their armies through Afghanistan into India, chiefly because on all other frontiers relatively stable states—the Yüan empire in the east and the Il-Khan state in the west—prevented a policy of aggression. This left the south as the only promising direction of attack. For several decades the Mongols remained a dangerous enemy for the Muslim sultans of Delhi. The Mongol invasions from Afghanistan became particularly fierce under Duwa Khan (1301–05), and the Delhi sultan ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Khaljī was able to defend his capital only with great difficulty against the Chagatai expeditionary forces.

Timur

The situation of Islam had, in spite of the conversion of earlier khans, remained precarious. When, after a short period of internal stability (1301–25), the khan Tarmashirin again adopted Islam (1326), there followed a temporary division between the eastern and western parts of his empire. Some sources even state that Tarmashirin was murdered by the adherents of Buddhism and shamanism because of his conversion to Islam. Under Tughluq Temür (1347–63) the empire was reunified, but his successors were mere puppets. Actual power lay in the hands of the amir Timur (Tamerlane, 1336–1405) who continued the Chagatai rule although he was not a Mongol himself. The influence of Chagatai Turkish had become very strong during the 14th century, but Mongol was still used as an official language in the Turfan region as late as 1369. In Timur’s reign, however, the Chagatai ulus had effectively ceased to be a Mongol empire and had become a Chagatai and Islamic state. Nevertheless, there remain to this day traces of Mongol rule over Afghanistan; the Moghol people still speak a Mongol dialect with some archaic features dating back to the period of the Mongol conquest in the 13th century. Persian supplanted Mongol and, to a certain degree, even Chagatai Turkish as the official and literary language.

Another kingdom which, though ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, must be regarded as basically Chagatai was that of the Shaybānid dynasty. Shaybān, a son of Juchi and a grandson of Genghis, ruled over the territories east and southeast of the Ural range. One of his descendants, Abū’l-Khayr (reigned 1428–68), made himself ruler of the Uzbeks. His grandson Muḥammad Shaybānī took Bukhara and Herāt from the Timurids, and his descendants continued to rule in Bukhara until 1599. Other branches of the same family, such as the Nogay khans and the Astrakhan khans, ruled over parts of Transcaspia. All of these states were Mongol only insofar as their sultans were patrilineal descendants of Genghis. Otherwise they showed no Mongol features at all. Their language was Chagatai Turkish, their culture Islamic with a strong admixture of Persian elements. The khanate of Khiva was from 1512 in the hands of the Shaybānids, and its last khan, ʿAbd Allāh, was deposed by the Soviet government as late as 1920, although Russian domination had already been established over the whole region in the 1860s and 1870s.

The Il-Khans in Iran

The ulus of Hülegü were from the beginning in a peculiar political situation as a consequence of the religious tendencies of the Mongol rulers in Iran. The negative attitude of Hülegü toward Islam and his attack against the caliphate led to a breach with the Golden Horde in southern Russia, where Berke, Batu’s brother, had adopted Islam. The Il-Khans (“regional khans”) in Iran, on the other hand, remained at first loyal allies of the great khan Kublai in China, whereas Berke supported the pretender Arigböge who rose against Kublai. Hülegü remained hostile toward Egypt, the chief Islamic power in the Near East, so that the alliance between Berke and the Mamluks in Egypt, concluded in 1261, followed almost naturally. For the first time in history a Mongol ruler allied himself with a foreign power against another Mongol. Even European powers became partners of this political constellation. The Christian states of Tripoli and Acre, founded by the Crusaders, enjoyed the protection of the pope and the kings of France. It is therefore not surprising that in Rome and Paris the Il-Khans were regarded as potential allies against Islamic Egypt.

Hülegü’s son Abagha succeeded his father in 1265. Abagha’s wife was a Byzantine, a daughter of the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, and he tried to establish closer political and military ties with the Holy See, England, and France through the Nestorian patriarchs whom he favoured greatly. His repeated attempts to conquer Syria and Egypt, however, failed conspicuously, as no cooperation with Byzantium or the Christian powers could be effected. Abagha died in 1282, and under Arghūn (1284–91)—who was himself inclined toward Buddhism—the tolerant policy toward the Christians was continued. He, too, favoured the Nestorians and sent the Nestorian ecclesiastic Rabban bar Sauma as his ambassador to Europe in order to establish closer contact with the Christian powers. Bar Sauma went first to Byzantium and then to Paris, where he was received by Philip the Fair (1287). In Bordeaux he met King Edward I of England, and in Rome he was granted an audience by Pope Nicholas IV (1288). No tangible results followed, however. Arghūn’s subsequent letters to Philip of France (1289) and to Pope Nicholas IV (1290) are documents of great linguistic and historic interest.

In domestic affairs, Arghūn relied greatly on the services of the Jewish physician Saʿd al-Dawlah, who was appointed inspector general of the treasury in 1288. Resistance to Saʿd soon materialized and even provoked anti-Jewish riots. The financial situation of the empire became even more precarious when Arghūn’s successor Gaykhatu (1291–95) introduced paper currency on the Chinese model. This paper money proved a failure and resulted in complete economic confusion.

Maḥmūd Ghāzān

The reign of Maḥmud Ghāzān (1295–1304) brought changes in several fields. He introduced fiscal and monetary reforms and reorganized the administration of the whole empire. His conversion to Islam marks a definite break in Mongol and Iranian history. Buddhism was persecuted as idolatry, and even the Jews and Christians suffered. The adoption of Islam by the Mongols facilitated the assimilation of Mongols and Turks in north Iran by eliminating their religious differences. Ghāzān also declared himself formally independent of the court in Beijing, and any reference to the great khans in coin inscriptions or official documents was dropped. He no longer called himself Il-Khan but khan in order to underline his sovereignty. This emergence of Iran as an independent state was perhaps prompted by the death in 1294 of Kublai Khan, whose relations with his nephews and great-nephews in Iran had always been friendly.

Mausoleum of Öljeitü

After Ghāzān’s premature death at the age of 31 (1304), his brother Öljeitü (1304–16) became khan. He had originally been a Christian and was baptized Nicholas but later became a Muslim. He continued the reform policy of Ghāzān and also kept his advisers, among them the statesman and historian Rashīd al-Dīn. The capital of the Il-Khans had hitherto been Tabriz, but Öljeitü moved his residence to Solṭāniyyeh near Qazvīn (1307). In foreign policy the new khan followed the pattern set by his predecessors: he decided to resume contact with European powers. His letter of 1307 addressed to Philip IV of France offering to continue friendly relations has survived. Both Ghāzān and Öljeitü were distinguished patrons of the arts and literature. Under the influence of Islam, the absorption of the Mongols by Iranian civilization became more and more pronounced. Although Öljeitü’s letter to Philip was written in Mongol, he calls himself not khan but sultan and uses a Muslim date along with the traditional Mongol designation of years arranged according to the animal cycle. The seals, like those on Arghūn’s letters, are in Chinese. This coexistence of Mongol, Turkic, Iranian, and Chinese elements in the Il-Khan empire lasted for more than half a century, but finally Islamic and Iranian influences proved to be the strongest.

illustration from the Shāh-nāmeh

Nevertheless, Iran remained for a long time under the influence of Chinese culture. Its miniature paintings of the 13th and 14th centuries, most notably those of the so-called Demotte Shāh-nāmeh, are clearly modeled on Chinese traditions. Iran produced under Mongol rule a historian who was perhaps the first ever to try to write a real world history. This was Rashīd al-Dīn’s Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh (“The Collection of Chronicles”), which incorporated not only the history of the Mongols but also that of India, China, and even Europe (the Franks). This universality could be expected only in a country like Iran where cultural and political ties existed simultaneously with China, the European powers, and the other Mongol empires.

Öljeitü’s son and heir, Abū Saʿīd, was the first of the Il-Khan rulers to bear a Muslim name. As he was only 12 years old when he came to the throne (1317), actual power remained largely in the hands of local amirs. There followed two decades of internal struggles and gradual disintegration. When Abū Saʿīd died childless in 1335, the Il-Khan empire practically ceased to exist as a political unity.

The Golden Horde

Mongol empire and the Golden Horde

The situation in Batu’s ulus was for a long time dominated by antagonism to the Il-Khan empire. For more than a century the rulers of the Golden Horde, or Kipchak Khanate, tried to occupy the Caucasus and advance into Iran. This led to an anti-Persian alliance with Egypt. In the economic field, too, relations between the Golden Horde and Egypt developed remarkably, and a flourishing sea trade carried goods between the two countries. Artisans and artists came from Egypt to the khan’s court at Sarai Batu on the lower Volga, so that Egyptian influence can be found in many of the works of art and architecture of the Golden Horde empire.

The religious situation differed very much from that in Iran, although both Mongol empires were eventually converted to Islam, which favoured the amalgamation of Turks and Mongols. In Iran, Islam was the religion of the subjugated population, but at the same time Nestorianism and Buddhism were powerful rivals. In southern Russia, however, Nestorianism had never played a prominent role, and Buddhism was practically nonexistent. This religious vacuum facilitated the adoption of Islam, and the native shamanism of the Mongols was soon supplanted by the new creed. The khans, on the other hand, observed tolerance toward the Orthodox church of their Russian subjects. The patriarchs enjoyed a number of privileges not unlike those granted by the khans in China. This noninterference in Russian religious life later proved a major political factor because the Orthodox church assumed a national function under the foreign rulers, not unlike that of the Orthodox clergy in Greece and the Balkan countries under Turkish rule, when the Christian religion and nationalism were closely allied.

The various Russian city-states and princedoms remained under Mongol rule; the khans contented themselves with levying tribute that was collected by specially appointed basqaq (“officials”). An important consequence of Mongol rule was the gradual transfer of Russian national life from Kyiv to Moscow. There were contacts with western Europe, but they were mostly of an economic nature. The republic of Genoa had as early as 1267 established a trade post at Kaffa (Feodosiya) in Crimea. In spite of several local incidents Genoese merchants continued their activities for a long time in the Golden Horde empire. Relations with Byzantium were mostly friendly, and Mongol rulers even occasionally sent armies to assist the emperors of Constantinople in their wars against Bulgaria. The Mongols themselves were deeply affected by their surroundings. The majority of their subjects in the steppe regions of southern Russia were Turkic (Kumans, Kipchaks, etc.), and this strong Turkic element led comparatively soon to the disappearance of distinctively Mongol features. The Mongol language was given up in favour of other Turkic languages, and continuous intermarriage resulted finally in the formation of a new Islamic population, the Tatars of Russia. In addition to Turkic and Mongol elements, there was in the Tatar population an admixture of other indigenous populations such as the Volga Bulgars and the Volga-Finnish peoples.

Under Mengü Temür (1267–80), Berke’s successor, the Golden Horde khanate became virtually independent of the great khan Kublai in Beijing. Under his successors, actual power rested with Nogay, a prince who had distinguished himself in several campaigns and had united the eastern Tatars against the authority of the central court. His pretensions finally led to war and his defeat in 1299 by the legitimate khan Toqtu (1290–1312). Under Öz Beg (Uzbek; 1312–42) the political power of the empire reached its peak, and Islamic culture flourished under the energetic ruler whose name survives to this day in that of Uzbekistan. He also granted to Ivan I of Moscow the title of grand duke for his services as a collector of tribute from the Tatars, a measure which strengthened the predominance of Moscow in Russia. The later rulers of the Horde were confronted with a new problem on their frontiers when the Ottoman Turks reached the Dardanelles in 1354. This not only weakened their maritime ties with Egypt but also cut the khanate off from the Mediterranean and thereby from southern Europe.

This growing isolation did not prevent the khans from making several attempts to advance toward the south. Jani Beg (1342–57) defeated the Persians and took Tabriz in 1357, but his early death prevented the consolidation of the Horde in Azerbaijan; the Caucasus also was given up. Another dangerous enemy of the khanate was the grand duchy of Lithuania, which for some time occupied large parts of Ukraine. The last khan of the Golden Horde who was undisputed ruler over the whole territory was Tokhtamysh (1378–95). He joined forces with the White Horde, an agglomeration of clans in western Siberia which had been led by the descendants of Orda, Batu’s eldest brother. Tokhtamysh also renewed the vassalage of the Moscow princes but shortly afterward met a new enemy in Timur (Tamerlane). The latter’s campaigns in south Russia brought no lasting results but weakened the political and military power of the Horde.

The later history of the Mongols, or rather of the Tatars, in Russia followed a course similar to that of the other Islamic Mongol empires: internal struggles and feuds, disintegration, and finally division into independent states. Meanwhile, the Moscow kingdom emerged as a major power, and the history of the Tatars became a part of Russian history. In the mid-15th century there remained, apart from the remnants of the Golden Horde, three khanates: those of Astrakhan, Kazan, and the Crimea. Only these three survived into the 16th century. In 1783 the last Genghisid ruler in Europe, the Crimean khan Shahin Girai, was deposed by the Russians. The long contact between Russia and the Tatars had its effect upon both nations. For Russia, Tatar influence has been an important factor in many fields. Loanwords from Mongolian and other Turkic languages are not infrequent in Russian, and the financial, political, and military organization of medieval Russia showed many Tatar elements.

Assessment

Among historic effects of the Mongol campaigns, not only the destruction of ancient civilizations like that of Khwārezm or of the Tangut state of Xi Xia should be remembered. All the conquered regions and states underwent a social, ethnic, and linguistic transformation through Mongol domination. On the other hand, Mongol imperialism for some time during the 13th and 14th centuries favoured contact between east and west, and many elements of material culture were transmitted from eastern Asia to the west and vice versa. At this time Europe and Asia had closer commercial and cultural contacts than ever before, and the age of maritime exploration was inaugurated in Europe by the attempts to reach by sea the fabulous eastern countries that Marco Polo and other travelers described after their journeys through the Mongol empires.

SECTION-2. INDIA'S Near Countries Detail

INDIA

India has a diverse and distinct culture that has been developing for thousands of years and varies from region to region. Here is a brief overview of culture and tradition in India.

Religion

India is considered the birthplace of some of the world's major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. Today, other religions such as Muslim and Christianity have worked their way into the population as well, though Hinduism remains the most popular.

Food

For some visitors, the heavy spices and herbs used in Indian cuisine can be difficult to adjust to. Indian spices are legendary for their medicinal purposes, food-preserving powers and flavor kicks. Spices, such as cumin, turmeric and cardamom, have been used over thousands of years to make otherwise bland but nutritional dishes taste better. Though it varies from region to region, wheat, Basmati rice and pulses are staples of the Indian diet. Several religious groups are vegetarian or have certain limitations as to what meat they can consume, but lamb and chicken are most common for those who do eat meat.

Languages

Being the world's second most populous nation (after China), India has an extensive range of languages. The constitution recognizes 15 regional languages but Hindi and English are recognized as the official languages. There are well over 1,000 dialects spoken in India.

Clothing

Colorful silk saris are what many can picture women to be wearing in India while men traditionally wear a dhoti. Saris vary from five to nine yards long and two to four feet in breadth, and are wrapped around the waist and draped over the shoulder often baring the midriff. The sari may have originated among India's temple dancers in ancient times because saris allowed them to maintain modesty while also giving their limbs the freedom of movement. A dhoti is an unstitched piece of cloth ranging from four to five yards in length and tied around the waist and legs. Gandhi used to wear a dhoti, and it was considered to be an attire that commanded dignity and respect.

Architecture

The Taj Mahal is the most well-known example of Indian architecture. Located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India, the Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum that was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, as a testament of his love for her.

CHINA

The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of China, by Wolfram Eberhard This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net

Release Date: February 28, 2004 [EBook #11367] Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF CHINA ***

Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Gene Smethers and PG Distributed Proofreaders

[Transcriber's Note: The following text contains numerous non-English words containing diacritical marks not contained in the ASCII character set. Characters accented by those marks, and the corresponding text representations are as follows (where x represents the character being accented). All such symbols in this text above the character being accented:

breve (u-shaped symbol): [)x] caron (v-shaped symbol): [vx] macron (straight line): [=x] acute (égu) accent: ['x]

Additionally, the author has spelled certain words inconsistently. Those have been adjusted to be consistent where possible. Examples of such

adjustments are as follows:

From To Northwestern North-western Southwards Southward Programme Program re-introduced reintroduced practise practice Lotos Lotus Ju-Chên Juchên cooperate co-operate life-time lifetime man-power manpower favor favour etc.

In general such changes are made to be consistent with the predominate usage in the text, or if there was not a predominate spelling, to the more modern.]

A HISTORY OF CHINA

Chapter I

: PREHISTORY

1 Sources for the earliest history 2 The Peking Man 3 The Palaeolithic Age 4 The Neolithic Age 5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures 6 The

Yang-shao culture 7 The Lung-shan culture 8 The first petty States in Shansi

: THE SHANG DYNASTY (c. 1600-1028 B.C.)

1 Period, origin, material culture 2 Writing and Religion 3 Transition to feudalism

ANTIQUITY

Chapter III

: THE CHOU DYNASTY (c. 1028-257 B.C.)

1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty 2 Feudalism in the new empire 3 Fusion of Chou and Shang 4 Limitation of the imperial power 5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states 6 Confucius 7 Lao Tz[)u]

Chapter IV

: THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

1 Social and military changes 2 Economic changes 3 Cultural changes

: THE CH'IN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.)

1 Towards the unitary State 2 Centralization in every field 3 Frontier Defence. Internal collapse

THE MIDDLE AGES

Chapter VI

: THE HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.-A.D. 220)

1 Development of the gentry-state 2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the Han empire. Incorporation of South China 3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry 4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire 5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty 6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows" 7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty 8 Hsiung-nu policy 9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans". Collapse of the Han dynasty 10 Literature and Art

Chapter VII

: THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF CHINA (A.D. 220-580)

(A) The three kingdoms (A.D. 220-265) 1 Social, intellectual, and economic problems during the period of the first division 2 Status of the

two southern Kingdoms 3 The northern State of Wei

(B) The Western Chin dynasty (265-317) 1 Internal situation in the Chin empire 2 Effect on the frontier peoples 3 Struggles for the throne 4 Migration of Chinese 5 Victory of the Huns. The Hun Han dynasty (later renamed the Earlier Chao dynasty)

(C) _The alien empires in North China, down to the Toba_ (A.D. 317-385) 1 The Later Chao dynasty in eastern North China (Hun; 329-352) 2 Earlier Yen dynasty in the north-east (proto-Mongol; 352-370), and the Earlier Ch'in dynasty in all north China (Tibetan; 351-394) 3 The fragmentation of north China 4 Sociological analysis of the two great alien empires 5 Sociological analysis of the petty States 6 Spread of Buddhism

(D) The Toba empire in North China (A.D. 385-550) 1 The rise of the Toba State 2 The Hun kingdom of the Hsia (407-431) 3 Rise of the Toba to a great power 4 Economic and social conditions 5 Victory and retreat of Buddhism

(E) Succession States of the Toba (A.D. 550-580): _Northern Ch'i dynasty, Northern Chou dynasty_ 1 Reasons for the splitting of the Toba empire 2 Appearance of the (Gök) Turks 3 The Northern Ch'i dynasty; the Northern Chou dynasty

(F) The southern empires 1 Economic and social situation in the south 2 Struggles between cliques under the Eastern Chin dynasty (A.D. 317-419) 3 The Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478) and the Southern Ch'i dynasty (A.D. 479-501) 4 The Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-556) 5 The Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-588) and its ending by the Sui 6 Cultural achievements of the south

Chapter VIII

: THE EMPIRES OF THE SUI AND THE T'ANG

(A) The Sui dynasty (A.D. 580-618) 1 Internal situation in the newly unified empire 2 Relations with Turks and with Korea 3 Reasons for collapse

(B) _The T'ang dynasty_ (A.D. 618-906) 1 Reforms and decentralization 2 Turkish policy 3 Conquest of Turkestan and Korea. Summit of power 4 The reign of the empress Wu: Buddhism and capitalism 5 Second blossoming of T'ang culture 6 Revolt of a military governor 7 The role of the Uighurs. Confiscation of the capital of the monasteries 8 First successful peasant revolt. Collapse of the empire

MODERN TIMES

Chapter IX

: THE EPOCH OF THE SECOND DIVISION OF CHINA

(A) The period of the Five Dynasties (906-960) 1 Beginning of a new epoch 2 Political situation in the tenth century 3 Monopolistic trade in South China. Printing and paper money in the north 4 Political history of the Five Dynasties

(B) Period of Moderate Absolutism (1) The Northern Sung dynasty 1 Southward expansion 2 Administration and army. Inflation 3 Reforms and Welfare schemes 4 Cultural situation (philosophy, religion, literature, painting) 5 Military collapse

(2) _The Liao (Kitan) dynasty in the north_ (937-1125) 1 Sociological

structure. Claim to the Chinese imperial throne 2 The State of the Kara-Kitai

(3) _The Hsi-Hsia State in the north_ (1038-1227) 1 Continuation of Turkish traditions

(4) The empire of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279) 1 Foundation 2 Internal situation 3 Cultural situation; reasons for the collapse

(5) _The empire of the Juchên in the north (i_ 115-1234) 1 Rapid expansion from northern Korea to the Yangtze 2 United front of all Chinese 3 Start of the Mongol empire

Chapter X

: THE PERIOD OF ABSOLUTISM

(A) The Mongol Epoch (1280-1368) 1 Beginning of new foreign rules 2 "Nationality legislation" 3 Military position 4 Social situation 5 Popular risings: National rising 6 Cultural

(B) The Ming Epoch (1368-1644) 1 Start. National feeling 2 Wars against Mongols and Japanese 3 Social legislation within the existing order 4 Colonization and agricultural developments 5 Commercial and industrial developments 6 Growth of the small gentry 7 Literature, art, crafts 8 Politics at court 9 Navy. Southward expansion 10 Struggles between cliques 11 Risings 12 Machiavellism 13 Foreign relations in the sixteenth century 14 External and internal perils

(C) The Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911) 1 Installation of the Manchus 2 Decline in the eighteenth century 3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty 4 Culture 5 Relations with the outer world 6 Decline; revolts 7

Chapter X 8

European Imperialism in the Far East 8 Risings in Turkestan and within China: the T'ai P'ing Rebellion 9 Collision with Japan; further Capitulations 10 Russia in Manchuria 11 Reform and reaction: The Boxer Rising 12 End of the dynasty

Chapter XI

: THE REPUBLIC (1912-1948)

1 Social and intellectual position 2 First period of the Republic: The warlords 3 Second period of the Republic: Nationalist China 4 The Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945 Chapter XII

: PRESENT-DAY CHINA

1 The growth of communism 2 Nationalist China in Taiwan 3 Communist China

1 Painted pottery from Kansu: Neolithic. _In the collection of the Museum

für Völkerkunde, Berlin_.

2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang. _From G. Ecke: Frühe chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Oskar Trautmann, Peking_ 1939, plate 3.

3 Bronze plaque representing two horses fighting each other. Ordos region, animal style. _From V. Griessmaier: Sammlung Baron Eduard von der Heydt, Vienna 1936, illustration No. 6_.

4 Hunting scene: detail from the reliefs in the tombs at Wu-liang-tz'u.

_From a print in the author's possession_.

5 Part of the "Great Wall". Photo Eberhard.

6 Sun Ch'üan, ruler of Wu. _From a painting by Yen Li-pen (c. 640-680_).

7 General view of the Buddhist cave-temples of Yün-kang. In the foreground, the present village; in the background the rampart. _Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson_.

8 Detail from the Buddhist cave-reliefs of Lung-men. _From a print in the author's possession_.

9 Statue of Mi-lo (Maitreya, the next future Buddha), in the "Great Buddha Temple" at Chengting (Hopei). _Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson_.

10 Ladies of the Court: Clay models which accompanied the dead person to the grave. T'ang period. _In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde. Berlin_.

11 Distinguished founder: a temple banner found at Khotcho, Turkestan.

_Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1B 4524, illustration B 408_.

12 Ancient tiled pagoda at Chengting (Hopei). _Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson_.

13 Horse-training. Painting by Li Lung-mien. Late Sung period. Manchu Royal House Collection.

14 Aborigines of South China, of the "Black Miao" tribe, at a festival. China-ink drawing of the eighteenth century. _Collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1D 8756, 68_.

15 Pavilion on the "Coal Hill" at Peking, in which the last Ming emperor committed suicide. Photo Eberhard.

16 The imperial summer palace of the Manchu rulers, at Jehol. _Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson_.

Tower on the city wall of Peking. _Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson_. MAPS

1 Regions of the principal local cultures in prehistoric times

2 The principal feudal States in the feudal epoch (roughly 722-481 B.C.)

3 China in the struggle with the Huns or Hsiung-nu (roughly 128-100 B.C.) 4 The Toba empire (about A.D. 500)

5 The T'ang realm (about A.D. 750)

6 The State of the Later T'ang dynasty (923-935) INTRODUCTION

There are indeed enough Histories of China already: why yet another one? Because the time has come for new departures; because we need to clear away the false notions with which the general public is constantly being fed by one author after another; because from time to time syntheses become necessary for the presentation of the stage reached by research.

Histories of China fall, with few exceptions, into one or the other of two groups, pro-Chinese and anti-Chinese: the latter used to predominate, but today the former type is much more frequently found. We have no desire to show that China's history is the most glorious or her civilization the oldest in the world. A claim to the longest history does not establish the greatness of a civilization; the importance of a civilization becomes apparent in its achievements. A thousand years ago China's civilization towered over those of the peoples of Europe. Today the West is leading; tomorrow China may lead again. We need to realize how China became what she is, and to note the paths pursued by the Chinese in human thought and action. The lives of emperors, the great battles, this or the other famous deed, matter less to us than the discovery of the great forces that underlie these features and govern the human element. Only when we have knowledge of those forces and counter-forces can we realize the significance of the great personalities who have emerged in China; and only then will the history of China become intelligible even to those who have little knowledge of the Far East and can make nothing of a mere enumeration of dynasties and campaigns.

Views on China's history have radically changed in recent years. Until about thirty years ago our knowledge of the earliest times in China depended entirely on Chinese documents of much later date; now we are able to rely on many excavations which enable us to check the written sources. Ethnological, anthropological, and sociological research has begun for China and her neighbours; thus we are in a position to write with some confidence about the making of China, and about her ethnical development, where formerly we could only grope in the dark. The claim that "the Chinese race" produced the high Chinese civilization entirely by its own efforts, thanks to its special gifts, has become just as untenable as the other theory that immigrants from the West, some conceivably from Europe, carried civilization to the Far East. We know now that in early times there was no "Chinese race", there were not even "Chinese", just as there were no "French" and no "Swiss" two thousand years ago. The "Chinese" resulted from the amalgamation of many separate peoples of different races in an enormously complicated and long-drawn-out process, as with all the other high civilizations of the world.

The picture of ancient and medieval China has also been entirely changed since it has been realized that the sources on which reliance has always been placed were not objective, but deliberately and emphatically represented a particular philosophy. The reports on the emperors and ministers of the earliest period are not historical at all, but served as examples of ideas of social policy or as glorifications of particular noble families. Myths such as we find to this day among China's neighbours were made into history; gods were made men and linked together by long family trees. We have been able to touch on all these things only briefly, and have had to dispense with any account of the complicated processes that have taken place here.

The official dynastic histories apply to the course of Chinese history the criterion of Confucian ethics; for them history is a textbook of ethics, designed to show by means of examples how the man of high character should behave or not behave. We have to go deeper, and try to extract the historic truth from these records. Many specialized studies by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars on problems of Chinese history are now available and of assistance in this task. However, some Chinese writers still imagine that they are serving their country by yet again dishing up the old fables for the foreigner as history; and some Europeans, knowing no better or aiming at setting alongside the unedifying history of Europe the shining example of the conventional story of China, continue in the old groove. To this day, of course, we are far from having really worked through every period of Chinese history; there are long periods on which scarcely any work has yet been done. Thus the picture we are able to give today has no finality about it and will need many modifications. But the time has come for a new synthesis, so that criticism may proceed along the broadest possible front and push our knowledge further forward.

The present work is intended for the general reader and not for the specialist, who will devote his attention to particular studies and to the original texts. In view of the wide scope of the work, I have had to confine myself to placing certain lines of thought in the foreground and paying less attention to others. I have devoted myself mainly to showing the main lines of China's social and cultural development down to the present day. But I

have also been concerned not to leave out of account China's relations with her neighbours. Now that we have a better knowledge of China's neighbours, the Turks, Mongols, Tibetans, Tunguses, Tai, not confined to the narratives of Chinese, who always speak only of "barbarians", we are better able to realize how closely China has been associated with her neighbours from the first day of her history to the present time; how greatly she is indebted to them, and how much she has given them. We no longer see China as a great civilization surrounded by barbarians, but we study the Chinese coming to terms with their neighbours, who had civilizations of quite different types but nevertheless developed ones.

It is usual to split up Chinese history under the various dynasties that have ruled China or parts thereof. The beginning or end of a dynasty does not always indicate the beginning or the end of a definite period of China's social or cultural development. We have tried to break China's history down into the three large periods--"Antiquity", "The Middle Ages", and "Modern Times". This does not mean that we compare these periods with periods of the same name in Western history although, naturally, we find some similarities with the development of society and culture in the West. Every attempt towards periodization is to some degree arbitrary: the beginning and end of the Middle Ages, for instance, cannot be fixed to a year, because development is a continuous process. To some degree any periodization is a matter of convenience, and it should be accepted as such.

The account of Chinese history here given is based on a study of the original documents and excavations, and on a study of recent research done by Chinese, Japanese and Western scholars, including my own research. In many cases, these recent studies produced new data or arranged new data in a new way without an attempt to draw general conclusions. By putting such studies together, by fitting them into the pattern that already existed, new insights into social and cultural processes have been gained. The specialist in the field will, I hope, easily recognize the sources, primary or secondary, on which such new insights represented in this book are based. Brief notes are appended for each chapter; they indicate the most important works in English and provide the general reader with an opportunity of finding further information on the problems touched on. For the specialist brief

hints to international research are given, mainly in cases in which different interpretations have been proposed.

Chinese words are transcribed according to the Wade-Giles system with the exception of names for which already a popular way of transcription exists (such as Peking). Place names are written without hyphen, if they remain readable.

THE EARLIEST TIMES

Chapter One

PREHISTORY

1 Sources for the earliest history Until recently we were dependent for the beginnings of Chinese history on the written Chinese tradition. According to these sources China's history began either about 4000 B.C. or about 2700

B.C. with a succession of wise emperors who "invented" the elements of a civilization, such as clothing, the preparation of food, marriage, and a state system; they instructed their people in these things, and so brought China, as early as in the third millennium B.C., to an astonishingly high cultural level. However, all we know of the origin of civilizations makes this of itself entirely improbable; no other civilization in the world originated in any such way. As time went on, Chinese historians found more and more to say about primeval times. All these narratives were collected in the great imperial history that appeared at the beginning of the Manchu epoch. That book was translated into French, and all the works written in Western languages until recent years on Chinese history and civilization have been based in the last resort on that translation.

Modern research has not only demonstrated that all these accounts are

inventions of a much later period, but has also shown why such narratives were composed. The older historical sources make no mention of any rulers before 2200 B.C., no mention even of their names. The names of earlier rulers first appear in documents of about 400 B.C.; the deeds attributed to them and the dates assigned to them often do not appear until much later.

Secondly, it was shown that the traditional chronology is wrong and another must be adopted, reducing all the dates for the more ancient history, before 900 B.C. Finally, all narratives and reports from China's earliest period have been dealt a mortal blow by modern archaeology, with the excavations of recent years. There was no trace of any high civilization in the third millennium B.C., and, indeed, we can only speak of a real "Chinese civilization" from 1300 B.C. onward. The peoples of the China of that time had come from the most varied sources; from 1300 B.C. they underwent a common process of development that welded them into a new unity. In this sense and emphasizing the cultural aspects, we are justified in using from then on a new name, "Chinese", for the peoples of China. Those sections, however, of their ancestral populations who played no part in the subsequent cultural and racial fusion, we may fairly call "non-Chinese".

This distinction answers the question that continually crops up, whether the Chinese are "autochthonons". They are autochthonons in the sense that they formed a unit in the Far East, in the geographical region of the present China, and were not immigrants from the Middle East.

2 The Peking Man Man makes his appearance in the Far East at a time when remains in other parts of the world are very rare and are disputed. He appears as the so-called "Peking Man", whose bones were found in caves of Chou-k'ou-tien south of Peking. The Peking Man is vastly different from the men of today, and forms a special branch of the human race, closely allied to the Pithecanthropus of Java. The formation of later races of mankind from these types has not yet been traced, if it occurred at all.

Some anthropologists consider, however, that the Peking Man possessed already certain characteristics peculiar to the yellow race.

The Peking Man lived in caves; no doubt he was a hunter, already in possession of very simple stone implements and also of the art of making fire. As none of the skeletons so far found are complete, it is assumed that

he buried certain bones of the dead in different places from the rest. This burial custom, which is found among primitive peoples in other parts of the world, suggests the conclusion that the Peking Man already had religious notions. We have no knowledge yet of the length of time the Peking Man may have inhabited the Far East. His first traces are attributed to a million years ago, and he may have flourished in 500,000 B.C.

3 The Palaeolithic Age After the period of the Peking Man there comes a great gap in our knowledge. All that we know indicates that at the time of the Peking Man there must have been a warmer and especially a damper climate in North China and Inner Mongolia than today. Great areas of the Ordos region, now dry steppe, were traversed in that epoch by small rivers and lakes beside which men could live. There were elephants, rhinoceroses, extinct species of stag and bull, even tapirs and other wild animals. About 50,000 B.C. there lived by these lakes a hunting people whose stone implements (and a few of bone) have been found in many places. The implements are comparable in type with the palaeolithic implements of Europe (Mousterian type, and more rarely Aurignacian or even Magdalenian). They are not, however, exactly like the European implements, but have a character of their own. We do not yet know what the men of these communities looked like, because as yet no indisputable human remains have been found. All the stone implements have been found on the surface, where they have been brought to light by the wind as it swept away the loess. These stone-age communities seem to have lasted a considerable time and to have been spread not only over North China but over Mongolia and Manchuria. It must not be assumed that the stone age came to an end at the same time everywhere. Historical accounts have recorded, for instance, that stone implements were still in use in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia at a time when metal was known and used in western Mongolia and northern China. Our knowledge about the palaeolithic period of Central and South China is still extremely limited; we have to wait for more excavations before anything can be said. Certainly, many implements in this area were made of wood or more probably bamboo, such as we still find among the non-Chinese tribes of the south-west and of South-East Asia. Such implements, naturally, could not last until today.

About 25,000 B.C. there appears in North China a new human type, found in upper layers in the same caves that sheltered Peking Man. This type is beyond doubt not Mongoloid, and may have been allied to the Ainu, a non-Mongol race still living in northern Japan. These, too, were a palaeolithic people, though some of their implements show technical advance. Later they disappear, probably because they were absorbed into various populations of central and northern Asia. Remains of them have been found in badly explored graves in northern Korea.

4 The Neolithic age In the period that now followed, northern China must have gradually become arid, and the formation of loess seems to have steadily advanced. There is once more a great gap in our knowledge until, about 4000 B.C., we can trace in North China a purely Mongoloid people with a neolithic culture. In place of hunters we find cattle breeders, who are even to some extent agriculturists as well. This may seem an astonishing statement for so early an age. It is a fact, however, that pure pastoral nomadism is exceptional, that normal pastoral nomads have always added a little farming to their cattle-breeding, in order to secure the needed additional food and above all fodder, for the winter.

At this time, about 4000 B.C., the other parts of China come into view. The neolithic implements of the various regions of the Far East are far from being uniform; there are various separate cultures. In the north-west of China there is a system of cattle-breeding combined with agriculture, a distinguishing feature being the possession of finely polished axes of rectangular section, with a cutting edge. Farther east, in the north and reaching far to the south, is found a culture with axes of round or oval section. In the south and in the coastal region from Nanking to Tonking, Yünnan to Fukien, and reaching as far as the coasts of Korea and Japan, is a culture with so-called shoulder-axes. Szechwan and Yünnan represented a further independent culture.

All these cultures were at first independent. Later the shoulder-axe culture penetrated as far as eastern India. Its people are known to philological research as Austroasiatics, who formed the original stock of the Australian aborigines; they survived in India as the Munda tribes, in Indo-China as the

Mon-Khmer, and also remained in pockets on the islands of Indonesia and especially Melanesia. All these peoples had migrated from southern China. The peoples with the oval-axe culture are the so-called Papuan peoples in Melanesia; they, too, migrated from southern China, probably before the others. Both groups influenced the ancient Japanese culture. The rectangular-axe culture of north-west China spread widely, and moved southward, where the Austronesian peoples (from whom the Malays are descended) were its principal constituents, spreading that culture also to Japan.

Thus we see here, in this period around 4000 B.C., an extensive mutual penetration of the various cultures all over the Far East, including Japan, which in the palaeolithic age was apparently without or almost without settlers.

5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures In the period roughly around 2500 B.C. the general historical view becomes much clearer. Thanks to a special method of working, making use of the ethnological sources available from later times together with the archaeological sources, much new knowledge has been gained in recent years. At this time there is still no trace of a Chinese realm; we find instead on Chinese soil a considerable number of separate local cultures, each developing on its own lines. The chief of these cultures, acquaintance with which is essential to a knowledge of the whole later development of the Far East, are as follows:

(a) _The north-east culture_, centred in the present provinces of Hopei (in which Peking lies), Shantung, and southern Manchuria. The people of this culture were ancestors of the Tunguses, probably mixed with an element that is contained in the present-day Paleo-Siberian tribes. These men were mainly hunters, but probably soon developed a little primitive agriculture and made coarse, thick pottery with certain basic forms which were long preserved in subsequent Chinese pottery (for instance, a type of the

so-called tripods). Later, pig-breeding became typical of this culture.

(b) The northern culture existed to the west of that culture, in the region of the present Chinese province of Shansi and in the province of Jehol in Inner

Mongolia. These people had been hunters, but then became pastoral nomads, depending mainly on cattle. The people of this culture were the tribes later known as Mongols, the so-called proto-Mongols.

Anthropologically they belonged, like the Tunguses, to the Mongol race.

(c) The people of the culture farther west, the _north-west culture_, were not Mongols. They, too, were originally hunters, and later became a pastoral people, with a not inconsiderable agriculture (especially growing wheat and millet). The typical animal of this group soon became the horse. The horse seems to be the last of the great animals to be domesticated, and the date of its first occurrence in domesticated form in the Far East is not yet determined, but we can assume that by 2500 B.C. this group was already in the possession of horses. The horse has always been a "luxury", a valuable animal which needed special care. For their economic needs, these tribes depended on other animals, probably sheep, goats, and cattle. The centre of this culture, so far as can be ascertained from Chinese sources, were the present provinces of Shensi and Kansu, but mainly only the plains. The people of this culture were most probably ancestors of the later Turkish peoples. It is not suggested, of course, that the original home of the Turks lay in the region of the Chinese provinces of Shensi and Kansu; one gains the impression, however, that this was a border region of the Turkish expansion; the Chinese documents concerning that period do not suffice to establish the centre of the Turkish territory.

(d) In the west, in the present provinces of Szechwan and in all the mountain regions of the provinces of Kansu and Shensi, lived the ancestors of the Tibetan peoples as another separate culture. They were shepherds, generally wandering with their flocks of sheep and goats on the mountain heights.

(e) In the south we meet with four further cultures. One is very primitive, the Liao culture, the peoples of which are the Austroasiatics already mentioned. These are peoples who never developed beyond the stage of primitive hunters, some of whom were not even acquainted with the bow and arrow. Farther east is the Yao culture, an early Austronesian culture, the people of which also lived in the mountains, some as collectors and

hunters, some going over to a simple type of agriculture (denshiring). They mingled later with the last great culture of the south, the Tai culture, distinguished by agriculture. The people lived in the valleys and mainly cultivated rice.

The origin of rice is not yet known; according to some scholars, rice was first cultivated in the area of present Burma and was perhaps at first a perennial plant. Apart from the typical rice which needs much water, there were also some strains of dry rice which, however, did not gain much importance. The centre of this Tai culture may have been in the present provinces of Kuangtung and Kuanghsi. Today, their descendants form the principal components of the Tai in Thailand, the Shan in Burma and the Lao in Laos. Their immigration into the areas of the Shan States of Burma and into Thailand took place only in quite recent historical periods, probably not much earlier than A.D. 1000.

Finally there arose from the mixture of the Yao with the Tai culture, at a rather later time, the Yüeh culture, another early Austronesian culture, which then spread over wide regions of Indonesia, and of which the axe of rectangular section, mentioned above, became typical.

Thus, to sum up, we may say that, quite roughly, in the middle of the third millennium we meet in the north and west of present-day China with a number of herdsmen cultures. In the south there were a number of agrarian cultures, of which the Tai was the most powerful, becoming of most importance to the later China. We must assume that these cultures were as yet undifferentiated in their social composition, that is to say that as yet there was no distinct social stratification, but at most beginnings of

class-formation, especially among the nomad herdsmen.

[Illustration: Map 1. Regions of the principal local cultures in prehistoric times. Local cultures of minor importance have not been shown.]

6 _The Yang-shao culture_

The various cultures here described gradually penetrated one another, especially at points where they met. Such a process does not yield a simple total of the cultural elements involved; any new combination produces entirely different conditions with corresponding new results which, in turn, represent the characteristics of the culture that supervenes. We can no longer follow this process of penetration in detail; it need not by any means have been always warlike. Conquest of one group by another was only one way of mutual cultural penetration. In other cases, a group which occupied the higher altitudes and practiced hunting or slash-and-burn agriculture came into closer contacts with another group in the valleys which practiced some form of higher agriculture; frequently, such contacts resulted in particular forms of division of labour in a unified and often stratified new form of society. Recent and present developments in South-East Asia present a number of examples for such changes. Increase of population is certainly one of the most important elements which lead to these developments. The result, as a rule, was a stratified society being made up of at least one privileged and one ruled stratum. Thus there came into existence around 2000 B.C. some new cultures, which are well known archaeologically. The most important of these are the Yang-shao culture in the west and the Lung-shan culture in the east. Our knowledge of both these cultures is of quite recent date and there are many enigmas still to be cleared up.

The _Yang-shao culture_ takes its name from a prehistoric settlement in the west of the present province of Honan, where Swedish investigators discovered it. Typical of this culture is its wonderfully fine pottery, apparently used as gifts to the dead. It is painted in three colours, white, red, and black. The patterns are all stylized, designs copied from nature being rare. We are now able to divide this painted pottery into several

sub-types of specific distribution, and we know that this style existed from

c. 2200 B.C. on. In general, it tends to disappear as does painted pottery in other parts of the world with the beginning of urban civilization and the invention of writing. The typical Yang-shao culture seems to have come to an end around 1600 or 1500 B.C. It continued in some more remote areas, especially of Kansu, perhaps to about 700 B.C. Remnants of this painted pottery have been found over a wide area from Southern Manchuria, Hopei,

Shansi, Honan, Shensi to Kansu; some pieces have also been discovered in Sinkiang. Thus far, it seems that it occurred mainly in the mountainous parts of North and North-West China. The people of this culture lived in villages near to the rivers and creeks. They had various forms of houses, including underground dwellings and animal enclosures. They practiced some agriculture; some authors believe that rice was already known to them. They also had domesticated animals. Their implements were of stone with rare specimens of bone. The axes were of the rectangular type. Metal was as yet unknown, but seems to have been introduced towards the end of the period. They buried their dead on the higher elevations, and here the painted pottery was found. For their daily life, they used predominantly a coarse grey pottery.

After the discovery of this culture, its pottery was compared with the painted pottery of the West, and a number of resemblances were found, especially with the pottery of the Lower Danube basin and that of Anau, in Turkestan. Some authors claim that such resemblances are fortuitous and believe that the older layers of this culture are to be found in the eastern part of its distribution and only the later layers in the west. It is, they say, these later stages which show the strongest resemblances with the West.

Other authors believe that the painted pottery came from the West where it occurs definitely earlier than in the Far East; some investigators went so far as to regard the Indo-Europeans as the parents of that civilization. As we find people who spoke an Indo-European language in the Far East in a later period, they tend to connect the spread of painted pottery with the spread of Indo-European-speaking groups. As most findings of painted pottery in the Far East do not stem from scientific excavations it is difficult to make any decision at this moment. We will have to wait for more and modern excavations.

From our knowledge of primeval settlement in West and North-West China we know, however, that Tibetan groups, probably mixed with Turkish elements, must have been the main inhabitants of the whole region in which this painted pottery existed. Whatever the origin of the painted pottery may be, it seems that people of these two groups were the main users of it. Most of the shapes of their pottery are not found in later Chinese pottery.

7 _The Lung-shan culture_

While the Yang-shao culture flourished in the mountain regions of northern and western China around 2000 B.C., there came into existence in the plains of eastern China another culture, which is called the Lung-shan culture, from the scene of the principal discoveries. Lung-shan is in the province of Shantung, near Chinan-fu. This culture, discovered only about twenty-five years ago, is distinguished by a black pottery of exceptionally fine quality and by a similar absence of metal. The pottery has a polished appearance on the exterior; it is never painted, and mostly without decoration; at most it may have incised geometrical patterns. The forms of the vessels are the same as have remained typical of Chinese pottery, and of Far Eastern pottery in general. To that extent the Lung-shan culture may be described as one of the direct predecessors of the later Chinese civilization.

As in the West, we find in Lung-shan much grey pottery out of which vessels for everyday use were produced. This simple corded or matted ware seems to be in connection with Tunguse people who lived in the north-east. The people of the Lung-shan culture lived on mounds produced by repeated building on the ruins of earlier settlements, as did the inhabitants of the "Tells" in the Near East. They were therefore a long-settled population of agriculturists. Their houses were of mud, and their villages were surrounded with mud walls. There are signs that their society was stratified. So far as is known at present, this culture was spread over the present provinces of Shantung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, and Anhui, and some specimens of its pottery went as far as Honan and Shansi, into the region of the painted pottery. This culture lasted in the east until about 1600 B.C., with clear evidence of rather longer duration only in the south. As black pottery of a similar character occurs also in the Near East, some authors believe that it has been introduced into the Far East by another migration (Pontic migration) following that migration which supposedly brought the painted pottery. This theory has not been generally accepted because of the fact that typical black pottery is limited to the plains of East China; if it had been brought in from the West, we should expect to find it in considerable amounts also in West China. Ordinary black pottery can be simply the result of a special temperature in the pottery kiln; such pottery can be found

almost everywhere. The typical thin, fine black pottery of Lung-shan, however, is in the Far East an eastern element, and migrants would have had to pass through the area of the painted pottery people without leaving many traces and without pushing their predecessors to the East. On the basis of our present knowledge we assume that the peoples of the

Lung-shan culture were probably of Tai and Yao stocks together with some Tunguses.

Recently, a culture of mound-dwellers in Eastern China has been discovered, and a southern Chinese culture of people with impressed or stamped pottery. This latter seems to be connected with the Yüeh tribes. As yet, no further details are known.

8 The first petty States in Shansi At the time in which, according to archaeological research, the painted pottery flourished in West China, Chinese historical tradition has it that the semi-historical rulers, Yao and Shun, and the first official dynasty, the Hsia dynasty ruled over parts of China with a centre in southern Shansi. While we dismiss as political myths the Confucianist stories representing Yao and Shun as models of virtuous rulers, it may be that a small state existed in south-western Shansi under a chieftain Yao, and farther to the east another small state under a chieftain Shun, and that these states warred against each other until Yao's state was destroyed. These first small states may have existed around 2000 B.C.

On the cultural scene we first find an important element of progress: bronze, in traces in the middle layers of the Yang-shao culture, about 1800 B.C.; that element had become very widespread by 1400 B.C. The forms of the oldest weapons and their ornamentation show similarities with weapons from Siberia; and both mythology and other indications suggest that the bronze came into China from the north and was not produced in China proper. Thus, from the present state of our knowledge, it seems most correct to say that the bronze was brought to the Far East through the agency of peoples living north of China, such as the Turkish tribes who in historical times were China's northern neighbours (or perhaps only individual families or clans, the so-called smith families with whom we meet later in Turkish tradition), reaching the Chinese either through these

people themselves or through the further agency of Mongols. At first the forms of the weapons were left unaltered. The bronze vessels, however, which made their appearance about 1450 B.C. are entirely different from anything produced in other parts of Asia; their ornamentation shows, on the one hand, elements of the so-called "animal style" which is typical of the steppe people of the Ordos area and of Central Asia. But most of the other elements, especially the "filling" between stylized designs, is recognizably southern (probably of the Tai culture), no doubt first applied to wooden vessels and vessels made from gourds, and then transferred to bronze. This implies that the art of casting bronze very soon spread from North China, where it was first practiced by Turkish peoples, to the east and south, which quickly developed bronze industries of their own. There are few deposits of copper and tin in North China, while in South China both metals are plentiful and easily extracted, so that a trade in bronze from south to north soon set in.

The origin of the Hsia state may have been a consequence of the progress due to bronze. The Chinese tradition speaks of the Hsia dynasty, but can say scarcely anything about it. The excavations, too, yield no clear conclusions, so that we can only say that it flourished at the time and in the area in which the painted pottery occurred, with a centre in south-west Shansi. We date this dynasty now somewhere between 2000 and 1600 B.C. and believe that it was an agrarian culture with bronze weapons and pottery vessels but without the knowledge of the art of writing.

Chapter Two

THE SHANG DYNASTY (c. 1600-1028 B.C.)

1 _Period, origin, material culture_

About 1600 B.C. we come at last into the realm of history. Of the Shang dynasty, which now followed, we have knowledge both from later texts and from excavations and the documents they have brought to light. The Shang civilization, an evident off-shoot of the Lung-shan culture (Tai, Yao, and Tunguses), but also with elements of the Hsia culture (with Tibetan and Mongol and/or Turkish elements), was beyond doubt a high civilization. Of the origin of the Shang State we have no details, nor do we know how the Hsia culture passed into the Shang culture.

The central territory of the Shang realm lay in north-western Honan, alongside the Shansi mountains and extending into the plains. It was a peasant civilization with towns. One of these towns has been excavated. It adjoined the site of the present town of Anyang, in the province of Honan. The town, the Shang capital from c. 1300 to 1028 B.C., was probably surrounded by a mud wall, as were the settlements of the Lung-shan people. In the centre was what evidently was the ruler's palace. Round this were houses probably inhabited by artisans; for the artisans formed a sort of intermediate class, as dependents of the ruling class. From inscriptions we know that the Shang had, in addition to their capital, at least two other large cities and many smaller town-like settlements and villages. The rectangular houses were built in a style still found in Chinese houses, except that their front did not always face south as is now the general rule. The Shang buried their kings in large, subterranean, cross-shaped tombs outside the city, and many implements, animals and human sacrifices were buried together with them. The custom of large burial mounds, which later became typical of the Chou dynasty, did not yet exist.

The Shang had sculptures in stone, an art which later more or less completely disappeared and which was resuscitated only in post-Christian times under the influence of Indian Buddhism. Yet, Shang culture cannot well be called a "megalithic" culture. Bronze implements and especially bronze vessels were cast in the town. We even know the trade marks of some famous bronze founders. The bronze weapons are still similar to those from Siberia, and are often ornamented in the so-called "animal style", which was used among all the nomad peoples between the Ordos region and Siberia until the beginning of the Christian era. On the other

hand, the famous bronze vessels are more of southern type, and reveal an advanced technique that has scarcely been excelled since. There can be no doubt that the bronze vessels were used for religious service and not for everyday life. For everyday use there were earthenware vessels. Even in the middle of the first millennium B.C., bronze was exceedingly dear, as we know from the records of prices. China has always suffered from scarcity of metal. For that reason metal was accumulated as capital, entailing a further rise in prices; when prices had reached a sufficient height, the stocks were thrown on the market and prices fell again. Later, when there was a metal coinage, this cycle of inflation and deflation became still clearer. The metal coinage was of its full nominal value, so that it was possible to coin money by melting down bronze implements. As the money in circulation was increased in this way, the value of the currency fell. Then it paid to turn coin into metal implements. This once more reduced the money in circulation and increased the value of the remaining coinage. Thus through the whole course of Chinese history the scarcity of metal and insufficiency of production of metal continually produced extensive fluctuations of the stocks and the value of metal, amounting virtually to an economic law in China. Consequently metal implements were never universally in use, and vessels were always of earthenware, with the further result of the early invention of porcelain. Porcelain vessels have many of the qualities of metal ones, but are cheaper.

The earthenware vessels used in this period are in many cases already very near to porcelain: there was a pottery of a brilliant white, lacking only the glaze which would have made it into porcelain. Patterns were stamped on the surface, often resembling the patterns on bronze articles. This ware was used only for formal, ceremonial purposes. For daily use there was also a perfectly simple grey pottery.

Silk was already in use at this time. The invention of sericulture must therefore have dated from very ancient times in China. It undoubtedly originated in the south of China, and at first not only the threads spun by the silkworm but those made by other caterpillars were also used. The remains of silk fabrics that have been found show already an advanced weaving technique. In addition to silk, various plant fibres, such as hemp,

were in use. Woollen fabrics do not seem to have been yet used.

The Shang were agriculturists, but their implements were still rather primitive. There was no real plough yet; hoes and hoe-like implements were used, and the grain, mainly different kinds of millet and some wheat, was harvested with sickles. The materials, from which these implements were made, were mainly wood and stone; bronze was still too expensive to be utilized by the ordinary farmer. As a great number of vessels for wine in many different forms have been excavated, we can assume that wine, made from special kinds of millet, was a popular drink.

The Shang state had its centre in northern Honan, north of the Yellow river. At various times, different towns were made into the capital city; Yin-ch'ü, their last capital and the only one which has been excavated, was their sixth capital. We do not know why the capitals were removed to new locations; it is possible that floods were one of the main reasons. The area under more or less organized Shang control comprised towards the end of the dynasty the present provinces of Honan, western Shantung, southern Hopei, central and south Shansi, east Shensi, parts of Kiangsu and Anhui. We can only roughly estimate the size of the population of the Shang state. Late texts say that at the time of the annihilation of the dynasty, some 3.1 million free men and 1.1 million serfs were captured by the conquerors; this would indicate a population of at least some 4-5 millions. This seems a possible number, if we consider that an inscription of the tenth century B.C. which reports about an ordinary war against a small and unimportant western neighbour, speaks of 13,081 free men and 4,812 serfs taken as prisoners.

Inscriptions mention many neighbours of the Shang with whom they were in more or less continuous state of war. Many of these neighbours can now be identified. We know that Shansi at that time was inhabited by Ch'iang tribes, belonging to the Tibetan culture, as well as by Ti tribes, belonging to the northern culture, and by Hsien-yün and other tribes, belonging to the north-western culture; the centre of the Ch'iang tribes was more in the south-west of Shansi and in Shensi. Some of these tribes definitely once formed a part of the earlier Hsia state. The identification of the eastern neighbours of the Shang presents more difficulties. We might regard them

as representatives of the Tai and Yao cultures.

2 Writing and Religion Not only the material but also the intellectual level attained in the Shang period was very high. We meet for the first time with writing--much later than in the Middle East and in India. Chinese scholars have succeeded in deciphering some of the documents discovered, so that we are able to learn a great deal from them. The writing is a rudimentary form of the present-day Chinese script, and like it a pictorial writing, but also makes use, as today, of many phonetic signs. There were, however, a good many characters that no longer exist, and many now used are absent. There were already more than 3,000 characters in use of which some 1,000 can now be read. (Today newspapers use some 3,000 characters; scholars have command of up to 8,000; the whole of Chinese literature, ancient and modern, comprises some 50,000 characters.) With these 3,000 characters the Chinese of the Shang period were able to express themselves well.

The still existing fragments of writing of this period are found almost exclusively on tortoiseshells or on other bony surfaces, and they represent oracles. As early as in the Lung-shan culture there was divination by means of "oracle bones", at first without written characters. In the earliest period any bones of animals (especially shoulder-bones) were used; later only tortoiseshell. For the purpose of the oracle a depression was burnt in the shell so that cracks were formed on the other side, and the future was foretold from their direction. Subsequently particular questions were scratched on the shells, and the answers to them; these are the documents that have come down to us. In Anyang tens of thousands of these oracle bones with inscriptions have been found. The custom of asking the oracle and of writing the answers on the bones spread over the borders of the Shang state and continued in some areas after the end of the dynasty.

The bronze vessels of later times often bear long inscriptions, but those of the Shang period have only very brief texts. On the other hand, they are ornamented with pictures, as yet largely unintelligible, of countless deities, especially in the shape of animals or birds--pictures that demand interpretation. The principal form on these bronzes is that of the so-called T'ao-t'ieh, a hybrid with the head of a water-buffalo and tiger's teeth.

The Shang period had a religion with many nature deities, especially deities of fertility. There was no systematized pantheon, different deities being revered in each locality, often under the most varied names. These various deities were, however, similar in character, and later it occurred often that many of them were combined by the priests into a single god. The composite deities thus formed were officially worshipped. Their primeval forms lived on, however, especially in the villages, many centuries longer than the Shang dynasty. The sacrifices associated with them became popular festivals, and so these gods or their successors were saved from oblivion; some of them have lived on in popular religion to the present day. The supreme god of the official worship was called Shang Ti; he was a god of vegetation who guided all growth and birth and was later conceived as a forefather of the races of mankind. The earth was represented as a mother goddess, who bore the plants and animals procreated by Shang Ti. In some parts of the Shang realm the two were conceived as a married couple who later were parted by one of their children. The husband went to heaven, and the rain is the male seed that creates life on earth. In other regions it was supposed that in the beginning of the world there was a world-egg, out of which a primeval god came, whose body was represented by the earth: his hair formed the plants, and his limbs the mountains and valleys. Every considerable mountain was also itself a god and, similarly, the river god, the thunder god, cloud, lightning, and wind gods, and many others were worshipped.

In order to promote the fertility of the earth, it was believed that sacrifices must be offered to the gods. Consequently, in the Shang realm and the regions surrounding it there were many sorts of human sacrifices; often the victims were prisoners of war. One gains the impression that many wars were conducted not as wars of conquest but only for the purpose of capturing prisoners, although the area under Shang control gradually increased towards the west and the south-east, a fact demonstrating the interest in conquest. In some regions men lurked in the spring for people from other villages; they slew them, sacrificed them to the earth, and distributed portions of the flesh of the sacrifice to the various owners of fields, who buried them. At a later time all human sacrifices were prohibited, but we have reports down to the eleventh century A.D., and

even later, that such sacrifices were offered secretly in certain regions of central China. In other regions a great boat festival was held in the spring, to which many crews came crowded in long narrow boats. At least one of the boats had to capsize; the people who were thus drowned were a sacrifice to the deities of fertility. This festival has maintained its fundamental character to this day, in spite of various changes. The same is true of other festivals, customs, and conceptions, vestiges of which are contained at least in folklore.

In addition to the nature deities which were implored to give fertility, to send rain, or to prevent floods and storms, the Shang also worshipped deceased rulers and even dead ministers as a kind of intermediaries between man and the highest deity, Shang Ti. This practice may be regarded as the forerunner of "ancestral worship" which became so typical of later China.

3 Transition to feudalism At the head of the Shang state was a king, posthumously called a "Ti", the same word as in the name of the supreme god. We have found on bones the names of all the rulers of this dynasty and even some of their pre-dynastic ancestors. These names can be brought into agreement with lists of rulers found in the ancient Chinese literature. The ruler seems to have been a high priest, too; and around him were many other priests. We know some of them now so well from the inscriptions that their biographies could be written. The king seems to have had some kind of bureaucracy. There were "ch'en", officials who served the ruler personally, as well as scribes and military officials. The basic army organization was in units of one hundred men which were combined as "right", "left" and "central" units into an army of 300 men. But it seems that the central power did not extend very far. In the more distant parts of the realm were more or less independent lords, who recognized the ruler only as their supreme lord and religious leader. We may describe this as an early, loose form of the feudal system, although the main element of real feudalism was still absent. The main obligations of these lords were to send tributes of grain, to participate with their soldiers in the wars, to send tortoise shells to the capital to be used there for oracles, and to send occasionally cattle and horses. There were some thirty such dependent

states. Although we do not know much about the general population, we know that the rulers had a patrilinear system of inheritance. After the death of the ruler his brothers followed him on the throne, the older brothers first. After the death of all brothers, the sons of older or younger brothers became rulers. No preference was shown to the son of the oldest brother, and no preference between sons of main or of secondary wives is recognizable.

Thus, the Shang patrilinear system was much less extreme than the later system. Moreover, the deceased wives of the rulers played a great role in the cult, another element which later disappeared. From these facts and from the general structure of Shang religion it has been concluded that there was a strong matrilinear strain in Shang culture. Although this cannot be proved, it seems quite plausible because we know of matrilinear societies in the South of China at later times.

About the middle of the Shang period there occurred interesting changes, probably under the influence of nomad peoples from the north-west.

In religion there appears some evidence of star-worship. The deities seem to have been conceived as a kind of celestial court of Shang Ti, as his "officials". In the field of material culture, horse-breeding becomes more and more evident. Some authors believe that the art of riding was already known in late Shang times, although it was certainly not yet so highly developed that cavalry units could be used in war. With horse-breeding the two-wheeled light war chariot makes its appearance. The wheel was already known in earlier times in the form of the potter's wheel. Recent excavations have brought to light burials in which up to eighteen chariots with two or four horses were found together with the owners of the chariots. The cart is not a Chinese invention but came from the north, possibly from Turkish peoples. It has been contended that it was connected with the war chariot of the Near East: shortly before the Shang period there had been vast upheavals in western Asia, mainly in connection with the expansion of peoples who spoke Indo-European languages (Hittites, etc.) and who became successful through the use of quick, light, two-wheeled war-chariots. It is possible, but cannot be proved, that the war-chariot spread through Central Asia in connection with the spread of such

Indo-European-speaking groups or by the intermediary of Turkish tribes.

We have some reasons to believe that the first Indo-European-speaking groups arrived in the Far East in the middle of the second millennium B.C. Some authors even connect the Hsia with these groups. In any case, the maximal distribution of these people seems to have been to the western borders of the Shang state. As in Western Asia, a Shang-time chariot was manned by three men: the warrior who was a nobleman, his driver, and his servant who handed him arrows or other weapons when needed. There developed a quite close relationship between the nobleman and his

chariot-driver. The chariot was a valuable object, manufactured by specialists; horses were always expensive and rare in China, and in many periods of Chinese history horses were directly imported from nomadic tribes in the North or West. Thus, the possessors of vehicles formed a privileged class in the Shang realm; they became a sort of nobility, and the social organization began to move in the direction of feudalism. One of the main sports of the noblemen in this period, in addition to warfare, was hunting. The Shang had their special hunting grounds south of the mountains which surround Shansi province, along the slopes of the

T'ai-hang mountain range, and south to the shores of the Yellow river. Here, there were still forests and swamps in Shang time, and boars, deer, buffaloes and other animals, as well as occasional rhinoceros and elephants, were hunted. None of these wild animals was used as a sacrifice; all sacrificial animals, such as cattle, pigs, etc., were domesticated animals.

Below the nobility we find large numbers of dependent people; modern Chinese scholars call them frequently "slaves" and speak of a "slave society". There is no doubt that at least some farmers were "free farmers"; others were what we might call "serfs": families in hereditary group dependence upon some noble families and working on land which the noble families regarded as theirs. Families of artisans and craftsmen also were hereditary servants of noble families--a type of social organization which has its parallels in ancient Japan and in later India and other parts of the world. There were also real slaves: persons who were the personal property of noblemen. The independent states around the Shang state also had serfs. When the Shang captured neighbouring states, they resettled the captured foreign aristocracy by attaching them as a group to their own noblemen.

The captured serfs remained under their masters and shared their fate. The

same system was later practiced by the Chou after their conquest of the Shang state.

The conquests of late Shang added more territory to the realm than could be coped with by the primitive communications of the time. When the last ruler of Shang made his big war which lasted 260 days against the tribes in the south-east, rebellions broke out which lead to the end of the dynasty, about 1028 B.C. according to the new chronology (1122 B.C. old chronology).

ANTIQUITY

Chapter Three

THE CHOU DYNASTY (c. 1028-257 B.C.)

1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty The Shang culture still lacked certain things that were to become typical of "Chinese" civilization. The family system was not yet the strong patriarchal system of the later Chinese. The religion, too, in spite of certain other influences, was still a religion of agrarian fertility. And although Shang society was strongly stratified and showed some tendencies to develop a feudal system, feudalism was still very primitive. Although the Shang script was the precursor of later Chinese script, it seemed to have contained many words which later disappeared, and we are not sure whether Shang language was the same as the language of Chou time. With the Chou period, however, we enter a period in which everything which was later regarded as typically "Chinese" began to emerge.

During the time of the Shang dynasty the Chou formed a small realm in the west, at first in central Shensi, an area which even in much later times was

the home of many "non-Chinese" tribes. Before the beginning of the eleventh century B.C. they must have pushed into eastern Shensi, due to pressures of other tribes which may have belonged to the Turkish ethnic group. However, it is also possible that their movement was connected with pressures from Indo-European groups. An analysis of their tribal composition at the time of the conquest seems to indicate that the ruling house of the Chou was related to the Turkish group, and that the population consisted mainly of Turks and Tibetans. Their culture was closely related to that of Yang-shao, the previously described painted-pottery culture, with, of course, the progress brought by time. They had bronze weapons and, especially, the war-chariot. Their eastward migration, however, brought them within the zone of the Shang culture, by which they were strongly influenced, so that the Chou culture lost more and more of its original character and increasingly resembled the Shang culture. The Chou were also brought into the political sphere of the Shang, as shown by the fact that marriages took place between the ruling houses of Shang and Chou, until the Chou state became nominally dependent on the Shang state in the form of a dependency with special prerogatives. Meanwhile the power of the Chou state steadily grew, while that of the Shang state diminished more and more through the disloyalty of its feudatories and through wars in the East. Finally, about 1028 B.C., the Chou ruler, named Wu Wang ("the martial king"), crossed his eastern frontier and pushed into central Honan. His army was formed by an alliance between various tribes, in the same way as happened again and again in the building up of the armies of the rulers of the steppes. Wu Wang forced a passage across the Yellow River and annihilated the Shang army. He pursued its vestiges as far as the capital, captured the last emperor of the Shang, and killed him. Thus was the Chou dynasty founded, and with it we begin the actual history of China. The Chou brought to the Shang culture strong elements of Turkish and also Tibetan culture, which were needed for the release of such forces as could create a new empire and maintain it through thousands of years as a cultural and, generally, also a political unit.

2 Feudalism in the new empire A natural result of the situation thus produced was the turning of the country into a feudal state. The conquerors were an alien minority, so that they had to march out and spread over the

whole country. Moreover, the allied tribal chieftains expected to be rewarded. The territory to be governed was enormous, but the communications in northern China at that time were similar to those still existing not long ago in southern China--narrow footpaths from one settlement to another. It is very difficult to build roads in the loess of northern China; and the war-chariots that required roads had only just been introduced. Under such conditions, the simplest way of administering the empire was to establish garrisons of the invading tribes in the various parts of the country under the command of their chieftains. Thus separate regions of the country were distributed as fiefs. If a former subject of the Shang surrendered betimes with the territory under his rule, or if there was one who could not be overcome by force, the Chou recognized him as a feudal lord.

We find in the early Chou time the typical signs of true feudalism: fiefs were given in a ceremony in which symbolically a piece of earth was handed over to the new fiefholder, and his instalment, his rights and obligations were inscribed in a "charter". Most of the fiefholders were members of the Chou ruling family or members of the clan to which this family belonged; other fiefs were given to heads of the allied tribes. The fiefholder (feudal lord) regarded the land of his fief, as far as he and his clan actually used it, as "clan" land; parts of this land he gave to members of his own branch-clan for their use without transferring rights of property, thus creating new sub-fiefs and sub-lords. In much later times the concept of landed property of a family developed, and the whole concept of "clan" disappeared. By 500 B.C., most feudal lords had retained only a dim memory that they originally belonged to the Chi clan of the Chou or to one of the few other original clans, and their so-called sub-lords felt themselves as members of independent noble families. Slowly, then, the family names of later China began to develop, but it took many centuries until, at the time of the Han Dynasty, all citizens (slaves excluded) had accepted family names. Then, reversely, families grew again into new clans.

Thus we have this picture of the early Chou state: the imperial central power established in Shensi, near the present Sian; over a thousand feudal states, great and small, often consisting only of a small garrison, or

sometimes a more considerable one, with the former chieftain as feudal lord over it. Around these garrisons the old population lived on, in the north the Shang population, farther east and south various other peoples and cultures. The conquerors' garrisons were like islands in a sea. Most of them formed new towns, walled, with a rectangular plan and central crossroads, similar to the European towns subsequently formed out of Roman encampments. This town plan has been preserved to the present day.

This upper class in the garrisons formed the nobility; it was sharply divided from the indigenous population around the towns The conquerors called the population "the black-haired people", and themselves "the hundred families". The rest of the town populations consisted often of urban Shang people: Shang noble families together with their bondsmen and serfs had been given to Chou fiefholders. Such forced resettlements of whole populations have remained typical even for much later periods. By this method new cities were provided with urban, refined people and, most important, with skilled craftsmen and businessmen who assisted in building the cities and in keeping them alive. Some scholars believe that many resettled Shang urbanites either were or became businessmen; incidentally, the same word "Shang" means "merchant", up to the present time. The people of the Shang capital lived on and even attempted a revolt in collaboration with some Chou people. The Chou rulers suppressed this revolt, and then transferred a large part of this population to Loyang. They were settled there in a separate community, and vestiges of the Shang population were still to be found there in the fifth century A.D.: they were entirely impoverished potters, still making vessels in the old style.

3 Fusion of Chou and Shang The conquerors brought with them, for their own purposes to begin with, their rigid patriarchate in the family system and their cult of Heaven (t'ien), in which the worship of sun and stars took the principal place; a religion most closely related to that of the Turkish peoples and derived from them. Some of the Shang popular deities, however, were admitted into the official Heaven-worship. Popular deities became "feudal lords" under the Heaven-god. The Shang conceptions of the soul were also admitted into the Chou religion: the human body housed two souls, the personality-soul and the life-soul. Death meant the separation of

the souls from the body, the life-soul also slowly dying. The personality-soul, however, could move about freely and lived as long as

there were people who remembered it and kept it from hunger by means of sacrifices. The Chou systematized this idea and made it into the

ancestor-worship that has endured down to the present time.

The Chou officially abolished human sacrifices, especially since, as former pastoralists, they knew of better means of employing prisoners of war than did the more agrarian Shang. The Chou used Shang and other slaves as domestic servants for their numerous nobility, and Shang serfs as farm labourers on their estates. They seem to have regarded the land under their control as "state land" and all farmers as "serfs". A slave, here, must be defined as an individual, a piece of property, who was excluded from membership in human society but, in later legal texts, was included under domestic animals and immobile property, while serfs as a class depended upon another class and had certain rights, at least the right to work on the land. They could change their masters if the land changed its master, but they could not legally be sold individually. Thus, the following, still rather hypothetical, picture of the land system of the early Chou time emerges: around the walled towns of the feudal lords and sub-lords, always in the plains, was "state land" which produced millet and more and more wheat.

Cultivation was still largely "shifting", so that the serfs in groups cultivated more or less standardized plots for a year or more and then shifted to other plots. During the growing season they lived in huts on the fields; during the winter in the towns in adobe houses. In this manner the yearly life cycle was divided into two different periods. The produce of the serfs supplied the lords, their dependants and the farmers themselves. Whenever the lord found it necessary, the serfs had to perform also other services for the lord. Farther away from the towns were the villages of the "natives", nominally also subjects of the lord. In most parts of eastern China, these, too, were agriculturists. They acknowledged their dependence by sending "gifts" to the lord in the town. Later these gifts became institutionalized and turned into a form of tax. The lord's serfs, on the other hand, tended to settle near the fields in villages of their own because, with growing urban population, the distances from the town to many of the fields became too great. It was also at this time of new settlements that a more intensive cultivation with a

fallow system began. At latest from the sixth century B.C. on, the distinctions between both land systems became unclear; and the pure serf-cultivation, called by the old texts the "well-field system" because

eight cultivating families used one common well, disappeared in practice.

The actual structure of early Chou administration is difficult to ascertain. The "Duke of Chou", brother of the first ruler, Wu Wang, later regent during the minority of Wu Wang's son, and certainly one of the most influential persons of this time, was the alleged creator of the book

_Chou-li_ which contains a detailed table of the bureaucracy of the country. However, we know now from inscriptions that the bureaucracy at the beginning of the Chou period was not much more developed than in late Shang time. The _Chou-li_ gave an ideal picture of a bureaucratic state, probably abstracted from actual conditions in feudal states several centuries later.

The Chou capital, at Sian, was a twin city. In one part lived the master-race of the Chou with the imperial court, in the other the subjugated population. At the same time, as previously mentioned, the Chou built a second capital, Loyang, in the present province of Honan. Loyang was just in the middle of the new state, and for the purposes of Heaven-worship it was regarded as the centre of the universe, where it was essential that the emperor should reside. Loyang was another twin city: in one part were the rulers' administrative buildings, in the other the transferred population of the Shang capital, probably artisans for the most part. The valuable artisans seem all to have been taken over from the Shang, for the bronze vessels of the early Chou age are virtually identical with those of the Shang age. The shapes of the houses also remained unaltered, and probably also the clothing, though the Chou brought with them the novelties of felt and woollen fabrics, old possessions of their earlier period. The only fundamental material change was in the form of the graves: in the Shang age house-like tombs were built underground; now great tumuli were constructed in the fashion preferred by all steppe peoples.

One professional class was severely hit by the changed circumstances--the Shang priesthood. The Chou had no priests. As with all the races of the

steppes, the head of the family himself performed the religious rites. Beyond this there were only shamans for certain purposes of magic. And very soon Heaven-worship was combined with the family system, the ruler being declared to be the Son of Heaven; the mutual relations within the family were thus extended to the religious relations with the deity. If, however, the god of Heaven is the father of the ruler, the ruler as his son himself offers sacrifice, and so the priest becomes superfluous. Thus the priests became "unemployed". Some of them changed their profession.

They were the only people who could read and write, and as an administrative system was necessary they obtained employment as scribes. Others withdrew to their villages and became village priests. They organized the religious festivals in the village, carried out the ceremonies connected with family events, and even conducted the exorcism of evil spirits with shamanistic dances; they took charge, in short, of everything connected with customary observances and morality. The Chou lords were great respecters of propriety. The Shang culture had, indeed, been a high one with an ancient and highly developed moral system, and the Chou as rough conquerors must have been impressed by the ancient forms and tried to imitate them. In addition, they had in their religion of Heaven a conception of the existence of mutual relations between Heaven and Earth: all that went on in the skies had an influence on earth, and vice versa. Thus, if any ceremony was "wrongly" performed, it had an evil effect on

Heaven--there would be no rain, or the cold weather would arrive too soon, or some such misfortune would come. It was therefore of great importance that everything should be done "correctly". Hence the Chou rulers were glad to call in the old priests as performers of ceremonies and teachers of morality similar to the ancient Indian rulers who needed the Brahmans for the correct performance of all rites. There thus came into existence in the early Chou empire a new social group, later called "scholars", men who were not regarded as belonging to the lower class represented by the subjugated population but were not included in the nobility; men who were not productively employed but belonged to a sort of independent profession. They became of very great importance in later centuries.

In the first centuries of the Chou dynasty the ruling house steadily lost power. Some of the emperors proved weak, or were killed at war; above all,

the empire was too big and its administration too slow-moving. The feudal lords and nobles were occupied with their own problems in securing the submission of the surrounding villages to their garrisons and in governing them; they soon paid little attention to the distant central authority. In addition to this, the situation at the centre of the empire was more difficult than that of its feudal states farther east. The settlements around the garrisons in the east were inhabited by agrarian tribes, but the subjugated population around the centre at Sian was made up of nomadic tribes of Turks and Mongols together with semi-nomadic Tibetans. Sian lies in the valley of the river Wei; the riverside country certainly belonged, though perhaps only insecurely, to the Shang empire and was specially well adapted to agriculture; but its periphery--mountains in the south, steppes in the north--was inhabited (until a late period, to some extent to the present day) by nomads, who had also been subjugated by the Chou. The Chou themselves were by no means strong, as they had been only a small tribe and their strength had depended on auxiliary tribes, which had now spread over the country as the new nobility and lived far from the Chou. The Chou emperors had thus to hold in check the subjugated but warlike tribes of Turks and Mongols who lived quite close to their capital. In the first centuries of the dynasty they were more or less successful, for the feudal lords still sent auxiliary forces. In time, however, these became fewer and fewer, because the feudal lords pursued their own policy; and the Chou were compelled to fight their own battles against tribes that continually rose against them, raiding and pillaging their towns. Campaigns abroad also fell mainly on the shoulders of the Chou, as their capital lay near the frontier.

It must not be simply assumed, as is often done by the Chinese and some of the European historians, that the Turkish and Mongolian tribes were so savage or so pugnacious that they continually waged war just for the love of it. The problem is much deeper, and to fail to recognize this is to fail to understand Chinese history down to the Middle Ages. The conquering Chou established their garrisons everywhere, and these garrisons were surrounded by the quarters of artisans and by the villages of peasants, a process that ate into the pasturage of the Turkish and Mongolian nomads.

These nomads, as already mentioned, pursued agriculture themselves on a small scale, but it occurred to them that they could get farm produce much

more easily by barter or by raiding. Accordingly they gradually gave up cultivation and became pure nomads, procuring the needed farm produce from their neighbours. This abandonment of agriculture brought them into a precarious situation: if for any reason the Chinese stopped supplying or demanded excessive barter payment, the nomads had to go hungry. They were then virtually driven to get what they needed by raiding. Thus there developed a mutual reaction that lasted for centuries. Some of the nomadic tribes living between garrisons withdrew, to escape from the growing pressure, mainly into the province of Shansi, where the influence of the Chou was weak and they were not numerous; some of the nomad chiefs lost their lives in battle, and some learned from the Chou lords and turned themselves into petty rulers. A number of "marginal" states began to develop; some of them even built their own cities. This process of transformation of agro-nomadic tribes into "warrior-nomadic" tribes continued over many centuries and came to an end in the third or second century B.C.

The result of the three centuries that had passed was a symbiosis between the urban aristocrats and the country-people. The rulers of the towns took over from the general population almost the whole vocabulary of the language which from now on we may call "Chinese". They naturally took over elements of the material civilization. The subjugated population had, meanwhile, to adjust itself to its lords. In the organism that thus developed, with its unified economic system, the conquerors became an aristocratic ruling class, and the subjugated population became a lower class, with varied elements but mainly a peasantry. From now on we may call this society "Chinese"; it has endured to the middle of the twentieth century.

Most later essential societal changes are the result of internal development and not of aggression from without.

4 Limitation of the imperial power In 771 B.C. an alliance of northern feudal states had attacked the ruler in his western capital; in a battle close to the city they had overcome and killed him. This campaign appears to have set in motion considerable groups from various tribes, so that almost the whole province of Shensi was lost. With the aid of some feudal lords who had remained loyal, a Chou prince was rescued and conducted eastward to

the second capital, Loyang, which until then had never been the ruler's actual place of residence. In this rescue a lesser feudal prince, ruler of the feudal state of Ch'in, specially distinguished himself. Soon afterwards this prince, whose domain had lain close to that of the ruler, reconquered a great part of the lost territory, and thereafter regarded it as his own fief. The Ch'in family resided in the same capital in which the Chou had lived in the past, and five hundred years later we shall meet with them again as the dynasty that succeeded the Chou.

The new ruler, resident now in Loyang, was foredoomed to impotence. He was now in the centre of the country, and less exposed to large-scale enemy attacks; but his actual rule extended little beyond the town itself and its immediate environment. Moreover, attacks did not entirely cease; several times parts of the indigenous population living between the Chou towns rose against the towns, even in the centre of the country.

Now that the emperor had no territory that could be the basis of a strong rule and, moreover, because he owed his position to the feudal lords and was thus under an obligation to them, he ruled no longer as the chief of the feudal lords but as a sort of sanctified overlord; and this was the position of all his successors. A situation was formed at first that may be compared with that of Japan down to the middle of the nineteenth century. The ruler was a symbol rather than an exerciser of power. There had to be a supreme ruler because, in the worship of Heaven which was recognized by all the feudal lords, the supreme sacrifices could only be offered by the Son of Heaven in person. There could not be a number of sons of heaven because there were not a number of heavens. The imperial sacrifices secured that all should be in order in the country, and that the necessary equilibrium between Heaven and Earth should be maintained. For in the religion of Heaven there was a close parallelism between Heaven and Earth, and every omission of a sacrifice, or failure to offer it in due form, brought down a reaction from Heaven. For these religious reasons a central ruler was a necessity for the feudal lords. They needed him also for practical reasons.

In the course of centuries the personal relationship between the various feudal lords had ceased. Their original kinship and united struggles had long been forgotten. When the various feudal lords proceeded to subjugate

the territories at a distance from their towns, in order to turn their city states into genuine territorial states, they came into conflict with each other. In the course of these struggles for power many of the small fiefs were simply destroyed. It may fairly be said that not until the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. did the old garrison towns became real states. In these circumstances the struggles between the feudal states called urgently for an arbiter, to settle simple cases, and in more difficult cases either to try to induce other feudal lords to intervene or to give sanction to the new situation. These were the only governing functions of the ruler from the time of the transfer to the second capital.

5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states In these disturbed times China also made changes in her outer frontiers. When we speak of frontiers in this connection, we must take little account of the European conception of a frontier. No frontier in that sense existed in China until her conflict with the European powers. In the dogma of the Chinese religion of Heaven, all the countries of the world were subject to the Chinese emperor, the Son of Heaven. Thus there could be no such thing as other independent states. In practice the dependence of various regions on the ruler naturally varied: near the centre, that is to say near the ruler's place of residence, it was most pronounced; then it gradually diminished in the direction of the periphery. The feudal lords of the inner territories were already rather less subordinated than at the centre, and those at a greater distance scarcely at all; at a still greater distance were territories whose chieftains regarded themselves as independent, subject only in certain respects to Chinese overlordship. In such a system it is difficult to speak of frontiers. In practice there was, of course, a sort of frontier, where the influence of the outer feudal lords ceased to exist. The development of the original feudal towns into feudal states with actual dominion over their territories proceeded, of course, not only in the interior of China but also on its borders, where the feudal territories had the advantage of more unrestricted opportunities of expansion; thus they became more and more powerful. In the south (that is to say, in the south of the Chou empire, in the present central China) the garrisons that founded feudal states were relatively small and widely separated; consequently their cultural system was largely absorbed into that of the aboriginal population, so that they developed into feudal states with a

character of their own. Three of these attained special importance--(1) Ch'u, in the neighbourhood of the present Chungking and Hankow; (2) Wu, near the present Nanking; and (3) Yüeh, near the present Hangchow. In 704

B.C. the feudal prince of Wu proclaimed himself "Wang". "Wang", however was the title of the ruler of the Chou dynasty. This meant that Wu broke away from the old Chou religion of Heaven, according to which there could be only one ruler (_wang_) in the world.

At the beginning of the seventh century it became customary for the ruler to unite with the feudal lord who was most powerful at the time. This feudal lord became a dictator, and had the military power in his hands, like the shoguns in nineteenth-century Japan. If there was a disturbance of the peace, he settled the matter by military means. The first of these dictators was the feudal lord of the state of Ch'i, in the present province of Shantung. This feudal state had grown considerably through the conquest of the outer end of the peninsula of Shantung, which until then had been independent.

Moreover, and this was of the utmost importance, the state of Ch'i was a trade centre. Much of the bronze, and later all the iron, for use in northern China came from the south by road and in ships that went up the rivers to Ch'i, where it was distributed among the various regions of the north, north-east, and north-west. In addition to this, through its command of portions of the coast, Ch'i had the means of producing salt, with which it

met the needs of great areas of eastern China. It was also in Ch'i that money was first used. Thus Ch'i soon became a place of great luxury, far surpassing the court of the Chou, and Ch'i also became the centre of the most developed civilization.

[Illustration: Map 2: The principal feudal States in the feudal epoch. (_roughly 722-481 B.C._)]

After the feudal lord of Ch'i, supported by the wealth and power of his feudal state, became dictator, he had to struggle not only against other feudal lords, but also many times against risings among the most various parts of the population, and especially against the nomad tribes in the southern part of the present province of Shansi. In the seventh century not only Ch'i but the other feudal states had expanded. The regions in which the

nomad tribes were able to move had grown steadily smaller, and the feudal lords now set to work to bring the nomads of their country under their direct rule. The greatest conflict of this period was the attack in 660 B.C. against the feudal state of Wei, in northern Honan. The nomad tribes seem this time to have been proto-Mongols; they made a direct attack on the garrison town and actually conquered it. The remnant of the urban population, no more than 730 in number, had to flee southward. It is clear from this incident that nomads were still living in the middle of China, within the territory of the feudal states, and that they were still decidedly strong, though no longer in a position to get rid entirely of the feudal lords of the Chou.

The period of the dictators came to an end after about a century, because it was found that none of the feudal states was any longer strong enough to exercise control over all the others. These others formed alliances against which the dictator was powerless. Thus this period passed into the next, which the Chinese call the period of the Contending States.

6 Confucius After this survey of the political history we must consider the intellectual history of this period, for between 550 and 280 B.C. the enduring fundamental influences in the Chinese social order and in the whole intellectual life of China had their original. We saw how the priests of the earlier dynasty of the Shang developed into the group of so-called "scholars". When the Chou ruler, after the move to the second capital, had lost virtually all but his religious authority, these "scholars" gained increased influence. They were the specialists in traditional morals, in sacrifices, and in the organization of festivals. The continually increasing ritualism at the court of the Chou called for more and more of these men. The various feudal lords also attracted these scholars to their side, employed them as tutors for their children, and entrusted them with the conduct of sacrifices and festivals.

China's best-known philosopher, Confucius (Chinese: K'ung Tz[)u], was one of these scholars. He was born in 551 B.C. in the feudal state Lu in the present province of Shantung. In Lu and its neighbouring state Sung, institutions of the Shang had remained strong; both states regarded

themselves as legitimate heirs of Shang culture, and many traces of Shang culture can be seen in Confucius's political and ethical ideas. He acquired the knowledge which a scholar had to possess, and then taught in the families of nobles, also helping in the administration of their properties. He made several attempts to obtain advancement, either in vain or with only a short term of employment ending in dismissal. Thus his career was a continuing pilgrimage from one noble to another, from one feudal lord to another, accompanied by a few young men, sons of scholars, who were partly his pupils and partly his servants. Many of these disciples seem to have been "illegitimate" sons of noblemen, i.e. sons of concubines, and Confucius's own family seems to have been of the same origin. In the strongly patriarchal and patrilinear system of the Chou and the developing primogeniture, children of secondary wives had a lower social status.

Ultimately Confucius gave up his wanderings, settled in his home town of Lu, and there taught his disciples until his death in 479 B.C.

Such was briefly the life of Confucius. His enemies claim that he was a political intriguer, inciting the feudal lords against each other in the course of his wanderings from one state to another, with the intention of somewhere coming into power himself. There may, indeed, be some truth in that.

Confucius's importance lies in the fact that he systematized a body of ideas, not of his own creation, and communicated it to a circle of disciples. His teachings were later set down in writing and formed, right down to the twentieth century, the moral code of the upper classes of China. Confucius was fully conscious of his membership of a social class whose existence was tied to that of the feudal lords. With their disappearance, his type of scholar would become superfluous. The common people, the lower class, was in his view in an entirely subordinate position. Thus his moral teaching is a code for the ruling class. Accordingly it retains almost unaltered the elements of the old cult of Heaven, following the old tradition inherited from the northern peoples. For him Heaven is not an arbitrarily governing divine tyrant, but the embodiment of a system of legality. Heaven does not act independently, but follows a universal law, the so-called "Tao". Just as sun, moon, and stars move in the heavens in accordance with law, so man

should conduct himself on earth in accord with the universal law, not against it. The ruler should not actively intervene in day-to-day policy, but should only act by setting an example, like Heaven; he should observe the established ceremonies, and offer all sacrifices in accordance with the rites, and then all else will go well in the world. The individual, too, should be guided exactly in his life by the prescriptions of the rites, so that harmony with the law of the universe may be established.

A second idea of the Confucian system came also from the old conceptions of the Chou conquerors, and thus originally from the northern peoples. This is the patriarchal idea, according to which the family is the cell of society, and at the head of the family stands the eldest male adult as a sort of patriarch. The state is simply an extension of the family, "state", of course, meaning simply the class of the feudal lords (the "chün-tz[)u]"). And the organization of the family is also that of the world of the gods. Within the family there are a number of ties, all of them, however, one-sided: that of father to son (the son having to obey the father unconditionally and having no rights of his own;) that of husband to wife (the wife had no rights); that of elder to younger brother. An extension of these is the association of friend with friend, which is conceived as an association between an elder and a younger brother. The final link, and the only one extending beyond the family and uniting it with the state, is the association of the ruler with the subject, a replica of that between father and son. The ruler in turn is in the position of son to Heaven. Thus in Confucianism the cult of Heaven, the family system, and the state are welded into unity. The frictionless functioning of this whole system is effected by everyone adhering to the rites, which prescribe every important action. It is necessary, of course, that in a large family, in which there may be up to a hundred persons living together, there shall be a precisely established ordering of relationships between individuals if there is not to be continual friction. Since the scholars of Confucius's type specialized in the knowledge and conduct of ceremonies, Confucius gave ritualism a correspondingly important place both in spiritual and in practical life.

So far as we have described it above, the teaching of Confucius was a further development of the old cult of Heaven. Through bitter experience,

however, Confucius had come to realize that nothing could be done with the ruling house as it existed in his day. So shadowy a figure as the Chou ruler of that time could not fulfil what Confucius required of the "Son of Heaven". But the opinions of students of Confucius's actual ideas differ.

Some say that in the only book in which he personally had a hand, the so-called Annals of Spring and Autumn, he intended to set out his

conception of the character of a true emperor; others say that in that book he showed how he would himself have acted as emperor, and that he was only awaiting an opportunity to make himself emperor. He was called indeed, at a later time, the "uncrowned ruler". In any case, the Annals of Spring and Autumn seem to be simply a dry work of annals, giving the history of his native state of Lu on the basis of the older documents available to him. In his text, however, Confucius made small changes by means of which he expressed criticism or recognition; in this way he indirectly made known how in his view a ruler should act or should not act. He did not shrink from falsifying history, as can today be demonstrated.

Thus on one occasion a ruler had to flee from a feudal prince, which in Confucius's view was impossible behaviour for the ruler; accordingly he wrote instead that the ruler went on a hunting expedition. Elsewhere he tells of an eclipse of the sun on a certain day, on which in fact there was no eclipse. By writing of an eclipse he meant to criticize the way a ruler had acted, for the sun symbolized the ruler, and the eclipse meant that the ruler had not been guided by divine illumination. The demonstration that the Annals of Spring and Autumn can only be explained in this way was the achievement some thirty-five years ago of Otto Franke, and through this discovery Confucius's work, which the old sinologists used to describe as a dry and inadequate book, has become of special value to us. The book ends with the year 481 B.C., and in spite of its distortions it is the principal source for the two-and-a-half centuries with which it deals.

Rendered alert by this experience, we are able to see and to show that most of the other later official works of history follow the example of the Annals of Spring and Autumn in containing things that have been deliberately falsified. This is especially so in the work called _T'ung-chien kang-mu_, which was the source of the history of the Chinese empire translated into French by de Mailla.

Apart from Confucius's criticism of the inadequate capacity of the emperor of his day, there is discernible, though only in the form of cryptic hints, a fundamentally important progressive idea. It is that a nobleman

(chün-tz[)u] should not be a member of the ruling _élite_ by right of birth alone, but should be a man of superior moral qualities. From Confucius on, "chün-tz[)u]" became to mean "a gentleman". Consequently, a country should not be ruled by a dynasty based on inheritance through birth, but by members of the nobility who show outstanding moral qualification for rulership. That is to say, the rule should pass from the worthiest to the worthiest, the successor first passing through a period of probation as a minister of state. In an unscrupulous falsification of the tradition, Confucius declared that this principle was followed in early times. It is probably safe to assume that Confucius had in view here an eventual justification of claims to rulership of his own.

Thus Confucius undoubtedly had ideas of reform, but he did not interfere with the foundations of feudalism. For the rest, his system consists only of a social order and a moral teaching. Metaphysics, logic, epistemology, i.e. branches of philosophy which played so great a part in the West, are of no interest to him. Nor can he be described as the founder of a religion; for the cult of Heaven of which he speaks and which he takes over existed in exactly the same form before his day. He is merely the man who first systematized those notions. He had no successes in his lifetime and gained no recognition; nor did his disciples or their disciples gain any general recognition; his work did not become of importance until some three hundred years after his death, when in the second century B.C. his teaching was adjusted to the new social conditions: out of a moral system for the decaying feudal society of the past centuries developed the ethic of the rising social order of the gentry. The gentry (in much the same way as the European bourgeoisie) continually claimed that there should be access for every civilized citizen to the highest places in the social pyramid, and the rules of Confucianism became binding on every member of society if he was to be considered a gentleman. Only then did Confucianism begin to develop into the imposing system that dominated China almost down to the present day. Confucianism did not become a religion. It was comparable to the later Japanese Shintoism, or to a group of customs among us which we

all observe, if we do not want to find ourselves excluded from our community, but which we should never describe as religion. We stand up when the national anthem is played, we give precedency to older people, we erect war memorials and decorate them with flowers, and by these and many other things show our sense of belonging. A similar but much more conscious and much more powerful part was played by Confucianism in the life of the average Chinese, though he was not necessarily interested in philosophical ideas.

While the West has set up the ideal of individualism and is suffering now because it no longer has any ethical system to which individuals voluntarily submit; while for the Indians the social problem consisted in the solving of the question how every man could be enabled to live his life with as little disturbance as possible from his fellow-men, Confucianism solved the problem of how families with groups of hundreds of members could live together in peace and co-operation in a densely populated country.

Everyone knew his position in the family and so, in a broader sense, in the state; and this prescribed his rights and duties. We may feel that the rules to which he was subjected were pedantic; but there was no limit to their effectiveness: they reduced to a minimum the friction that always occurs when great masses of people live close together; they gave Chinese society the strength through which it has endured; they gave security to its individuals. China's first real social crisis after the collapse of feudalism, that is to say, after the fourth or third century B.C., began only in the present century with the collapse of the social order of the gentry and the breakdown of the family system.

7 _Lao Tz[)u]_

In eighteenth-century Europe Confucius was the only Chinese philosopher held in regard; in the last hundred years, the years of Europe's internal crisis, the philosopher Lao Tz[)u] steadily advanced in repute, so that his book was translated almost a hundred times into various European languages. According to the general view among the Chinese, Lao Tz[)u] was an older contemporary of Confucius; recent Chinese and Western research (A. Waley; H.H. Dubs) has contested this view and places Lao

Tz[)u] in the latter part of the fourth century B.C., or even later. Virtually nothing at all is known about his life; the oldest biography of Lao Tz[)u], written about 100 B.C., says that he lived as an official at the ruler's court and, one day, became tired of the life of an official and withdrew from the capital to his estate, where he died in old age. This, too, may be legendary, but it fits well into the picture given to us by Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching and by the life of his later followers. From the second century A.D., that is to say at least four hundred years after his death, there are legends of his migrating to the far west. Still later narratives tell of his going to Turkestan (where a temple was actually built in his honour in the Medieval period); according to other sources he travelled as far as India or Sogdiana (Samarkand and Bokhara), where according to some accounts he was the teacher or forerunner of Buddha, and according to others of Mani, the founder of Manichaeism. For all this there is not a vestige of documentary evidence.

Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching is contained in a small book, the _Tao Tê Ching_, the "Book of the World Law and its Power". The book is written in quite simple language, at times in rhyme, but the sense is so vague that countless versions, differing radically from each other, can be based on it, and just as many translations are possible, all philologically defensible. This vagueness is deliberate.

Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching is essentially an effort to bring man's life on earth into harmony with the life and law of the universe (Tao). This was also Confucius's purpose. But while Confucius set out to attain that purpose in a sort of primitive scientific way, by laying down a number of rules of human conduct, Lao Tz[)u] tries to attain his ideal by an intuitive, emotional method. Lao Tz[)u] is always described as a mystic, but perhaps this is not entirely appropriate; it must be borne in mind that in his time the Chinese language, spoken and written, still had great difficulties in the expression of ideas. In reading Lao Tz[)u]'s book we feel that he is trying to express something for which the language of his day was inadequate; and what he wanted to express belonged to the emotional, not the intellectual, side of the human character, so that any perfectly clear expression of it in words was entirely impossible. It must be borne in mind that the Chinese language lacks definite word categories like substantive, adjective, adverb, or verb;

any word can be used now in one category and now in another, with a few exceptions; thus the understanding of a combination like "white horse" formed a difficult logical problem for the thinker of the fourth century B.C.: did it mean "white" plus "horse"? Or was "white horse" no longer a horse at all but something quite different?

Confucius's way of bringing human life into harmony with the life of the universe was to be a process of assimilating Man as a social being, Man in his social environment, to Nature, and of so maintaining his activity within the bounds of the community. Lao Tz[)u] pursues another path, the path for those who feel disappointed with life in the community. A Taoist, as a follower of Lao Tz[)u] is called, withdraws from all social life, and carries out none of the rites and ceremonies which a man of the upper class should observe throughout the day. He lives in self-imposed seclusion, in an elaborate primitivity which is often described in moving terms that are almost convincing of actual "primitivity". Far from the city, surrounded by Nature, the Taoist lives his own life, together with a few friends and his servants, entirely according to his nature. His own nature, like everything else, represents for him a part of the Tao, and the task of the individual consists in the most complete adherence to the Tao that is conceivable, as far as possible performing no act that runs counter to the Tao. This is the main element of Lao Tz[)u]'s doctrine, the doctrine of _wu-wei_, "passive achievement".

Lao Tz[)u] seems to have thought that this doctrine could be applied to the life of the state. He assumed that an ideal life in society was possible if everyone followed his own nature entirely and no artificial restrictions were imposed. Thus he writes: "The more the people are forbidden to do this and that, the poorer will they be. The more sharp weapons the people possess, the more will darkness and bewilderment spread through the land. The more craft and cunning men have, the more useless and pernicious contraptions will they invent. The more laws and edicts are imposed, the more thieves and bandits there will be. 'If I work through Non-action,' says the Sage, 'the people will transform themselves.'"[1] Thus according to Lao Tz[)u], who takes the existence of a monarchy for granted, the ruler must treat his subjects as follows: "By emptying their hearts of desire and their

minds of envy, and by filling their stomachs with what they need; by reducing their ambitions and by strengthening their bones and sinews; by striving to keep them without the knowledge of what is evil and without cravings. Thus are the crafty ones given no scope for tempting interference. For it is by Non-action that the Sage governs, and nothing is really left uncontrolled."[2]

[Footnote 1: _The Way of Acceptance_: a new version of Lao Tz[)u]'s

_Tao Tê Ching_, by Hermon Ould (Dakers, 1946), Ch. 57.] [Footnote 2: The Way of Acceptance, Ch. 3.]

Lao Tz[)u] did not live to learn that such rule of good government would be followed by only one sort of rulers--dictators; and as a matter of fact the "Legalist theory" which provided the philosophic basis for dictatorship in the third century B.C. was attributable to Lao Tz[)u]. He was not thinking, however, of dictatorship; he was an individualistic anarchist, believing that if there were no active government all men would be happy. Then everyone could attain unity with Nature for himself. Thus we find in Lao Tz[)u], and later in all other Taoists, a scornful repudiation of all social and official obligations. An answer that became famous was given by the Taoist Chuang Tz[)u] (see below) when it was proposed to confer high office in the state on him (the story may or may not be true, but it is typical of Taoist thought): "I have heard," he replied, "that in Ch'u there is a tortoise sacred to the gods. It has now been dead for 3,000 years, and the king keeps it in a shrine with silken cloths, and gives it shelter in the halls of a temple. Which do you think that tortoise would prefer--to be dead and have its vestigial bones so honoured, or to be still alive and dragging its tail after it in the mud?" the officials replied: "No doubt it would prefer to be alive and dragging its tail after it in the mud." Then spoke Chuang Tz[)u]: "Begone!

I, too, would rather drag my tail after me in the mud!" (Chuang Tz[)u] 17, 10.)

The true Taoist withdraws also from his family. Typical of this is another story, surely apocryphal, from Chuang Tz[)u] (Ch. 3, 3). At the death of Lao Tz[)u] a disciple went to the family and expressed his sympathy quite

briefly and formally. The other disciples were astonished, and asked his reason. He said: "Yes, at first I thought that he was our man, but he is not. When I went to grieve, the old men were bewailing him as though they were bewailing a son, and the young wept as though they were mourning a mother. To bind them so closely to himself, he must have spoken words which he should not have spoken, and wept tears which he should not have wept. That, however, is a falling away from the heavenly nature."

Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching, like that of Confucius, cannot be described as religion; like Confucius's, it is a sort of social philosophy, but of irrationalistic character. Thus it was quite possible, and later it became the rule, for one and the same person to be both Confucian and Taoist. As an official and as the head of his family, a man would think and act as a Confucian; as a private individual, when he had retired far from the city to live in his country mansion (often modestly described as a cave or a thatched hut), or when he had been dismissed from his post or suffered some other trouble, he would feel and think as a Taoist. In order to live as a Taoist it was necessary, of course, to possess such an estate, to which a man could retire with his servants, and where he could live without himself doing manual work. This difference between the Confucian and the Taoist found a place in the works of many Chinese poets. I take the following quotation from an essay by the statesman and poet Ts'ao Chih, of the end of the second century A.D.:

"Master Mysticus lived in deep seclusion on a mountain in the wilderness; he had withdrawn as in flight from the world, desiring to purify his spirit and give rest to his heart. He despised official activity, and no longer maintained any relations with the world; he sought quiet and freedom from care, in order in this way to attain everlasting life. He did nothing but send his thoughts wandering between sky and clouds, and consequently there was nothing worldly that could attract and tempt him.

[Illustration: 1 Painted pottery from Kansu: Neolithic. _In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin_.]

[Illustration: 2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang. _From G. Ecke: Frühe chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Oskar Trautmann, Peking_ 1939, plate 3.]

"When Mr. Rationalist heard of this man, he desired to visit him, in order to persuade him to alter his views. He harnessed four horses, who could quickly traverse the plain, and entered his light fast carriage. He drove through the plain, leaving behind him the ruins of abandoned settlements; he entered the boundless wilderness, and finally reached the dwelling of Master Mysticus. Here there was a waterfall on one side, and on the other were high crags; at the back a stream flowed deep down in its bed, and in front was an odorous wood. The master wore a white doeskin cap and a striped fox-pelt. He came forward from a cave buried in the mountain, leaned against the tall crag, and enjoyed the prospect of wild nature. His ideas floated on the breezes, and he looked as if the wide spaces of the heavens and the countries of the earth were too narrow for him; as if he was going to fly but had not yet left the ground; as if he had already spread his wings but wanted to wait a moment. Mr. Rationalist climbed up with the aid of vine shoots, reached the top of the crag, and stepped up to him, saying very respectfully:

"'I have heard that a man of nobility does not flee from society, but seeks to gain fame; a man of wisdom does not swim against the current, but seeks to earn repute. You, however, despise the achievements of civilization and culture; you have no regard for the splendour of philanthropy and justice; you squander your powers here in the wilderness and neglect ordered relations between man................ '"

Frequently Master Mysticus and Mr. Rationalist were united in a single person. Thus, Shih Ch'ung wrote in an essay on himself:

"In my youth I had great ambition and wanted to stand out above the multitude. Thus it happened that at a little over twenty years of age I was already a court official; I remained in the service for twenty-five years.

When I was fifty I had to give up my post because of an unfortunate occurrence.... The older I became, the more I appreciated the freedom I had

acquired; and as I loved forest and plain, I retired to my villa. When I built this villa, a long embankment formed the boundary behind it; in front the prospect extended over a clear canal; all around grew countless cypresses, and flowing water meandered round the house. There were pools there, and outlook towers; I bred birds and fishes. In my harem there were always good musicians who played dance tunes. When I went out I enjoyed nature or hunted birds and fished. When I came home, I enjoyed playing the lute or reading; I also liked to concoct an elixir of life and to take breathing exercises,[3] because I did not want to die, but wanted one day to lift myself to the skies, like an immortal genius. Suddenly I was drawn back into the official career, and became once more one of the dignitaries of the Emperor."

[Footnote 3: Both Taoist practices.]

Thus Lao Tz[)u]'s individualist and anarchist doctrine was not suited to form the basis of a general Chinese social order, and its employment in support of dictatorship was certainly not in the spirit of Lao Tz[)u].

Throughout history, however, Taoism remained the philosophic attitude of individuals of the highest circle of society; its real doctrine never became popularly accepted; for the strong feeling for nature that distinguishes the Chinese, and their reluctance to interfere in the sanctified order of nature by technical and other deliberate acts, was not actually a result of Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching, but one of the fundamentals from which his ideas started.

If the date assigned to Lao Tz[)u] by present-day research (the fourth instead of the sixth century B.C.) is correct, he was more or less contemporary with Chuang Tz[)u], who was probably the most gifted poet among the Chinese philosophers and Taoists. A thin thread extends from them as far as the fourth century A.D.: Huai-nan Tz[)u], Chung-ch'ang T'ung, Yüan Chi (210-263), Liu Ling (221-300), and T'ao Ch'ien (365-427), are some of the most eminent names of Taoist philosophers. After that the stream of original thought dried up, and we rarely find a new idea among the late Taoists. These gentlemen living on their estates had acquired a new means of expressing their inmost feelings: they wrote poetry and, above all, painted. Their poems and paintings contain in a different outward form

what Lao Tz[)u] had tried to express with the inadequate means of the language of his day. Thus Lao Tz[)u]'s teaching has had the strongest influence to this day in this field, and has inspired creative work which is among the finest achievements of mankind.

Chapter Four

THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

1 Social and military changes The period following that of the Chou dictatorships is known as that of the Contending States. Out of over a thousand states, fourteen remained, of which, in the period that now followed, one after another disappeared, until only one remained. This period is the fullest, or one of the fullest, of strife in all Chinese history. The various feudal states had lost all sense of allegiance to the ruler, and acted in entire independence. It is a pure fiction to speak of a Chinese State in this period; the emperor had no more power than the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire in the late medieval period of Europe, and the so-called "feudal states" of China can be directly compared with the developing national states of Europe. A comparison of this period with late medieval Europe is, indeed, of highest interest. If we adopt a political system of periodization, we might say that around 500 B.C. the unified feudal state of the first period of Antiquity came to an end and the second, a period of the national states began, although formally, the feudal system continued and the national states still retained many feudal traits.

As none of these states was strong enough to control and subjugate the rest, alliances were formed. The most favoured union was the north-south axis; it struggled against an east-west league. The alliances were not stable but broke up again and again through bribery or intrigue, which produced new combinations. We must confine ourselves to mentioning the most important

of the events that took place behind this military façade.

Through the continual struggles more and more feudal lords lost their lands; and not only they, but the families of the nobles dependent on them, who had received so-called sub-fiefs. Some of the landless nobles perished; some offered their services to the remaining feudal lords as soldiers or advisers. Thus in this period we meet with a large number of migratory politicians who became competitors of the wandering scholars. Both these groups recommended to their lord ways and means of gaining victory over the other feudal lords, so as to become sole ruler. In order to carry out their plans the advisers claimed the rank of a Minister or Chancellor.

Realistic though these advisers and their lords were in their thinking, they did not dare to trample openly on the old tradition. The emperor might in practice be a completely powerless figurehead, but he belonged nevertheless, according to tradition, to a family of divine origin, which had obtained its office not merely by the exercise of force but through a "divine mandate". Accordingly, if one of the feudal lords thought of putting forward a claim to the imperial throne, he felt compelled to demonstrate that his family was just as much of divine origin as the emperor's, and perhaps of remoter origin. In this matter the travelling "scholars" rendered valuable service as manufacturers of genealogical trees. Each of the old noble families already had its family tree, as an indispensable requisite for the sacrifices to ancestors. But in some cases this tree began as a branch of that of the imperial family: this was the case of the feudal lords who were of imperial descent and whose ancestors had been granted fiefs after the conquest of the country. Others, however, had for their first ancestor a local deity long worshipped in the family's home country, such as the ancient agrarian god Huang Ti, or the bovine god Shen Nung. Here the "scholars" stepped in, turning the local deities into human beings and "emperors". This suddenly gave the noble family concerned an imperial origin. Finally, order was brought into this collection of ancient emperors. They were arranged and connected with each other in "dynasties" or in some other "historical" form. Thus at a stroke Huang Ti, who about 450 B.C. had been a local god in the region of southern Shansi, became the forefather of almost all the noble families, including that of the imperial house of the Chou. Needless

to say, there would be discrepancies between the family trees constructed by the various scholars for their lords, and later, when this problem had lost its political importance, the commentators laboured for centuries on the elaboration of an impeccable system of "ancient emperors"--and to this day there are sinologists who continue to present these humanized gods as historical personalities.

In the earlier wars fought between the nobles they were themselves the actual combatants, accompanied only by their retinue. As the struggles for power grew in severity, each noble hired such mercenaries as he could, for instance the landless nobles just mentioned. Very soon it became the custom to arm peasants and send them to the wars. This substantially increased the armies. The numbers of soldiers who were killed in particular battles may have been greatly exaggerated (in a single battle in 260 B.C., for instance, the number who lost their lives was put at 450,000, a quite impossible figure); but there must have been armies of several thousand men, perhaps as many as 10,000. The population had grown considerably by that time.

The armies of the earlier period consisted mainly of the nobles in their war chariots; each chariot surrounded by the retinue of the nobleman. Now came large troops of commoners as infantry as well, drawn from the peasant population. To these, cavalry were first added in the fifth century B.C., by the northern state of Chao (in the present Shansi), following the example of its Turkish and Mongol neighbours. The general theory among ethnologists is that the horse was first harnessed to a chariot, and that riding came much later; but it is my opinion that riders were known earlier, but could not be efficiently employed in war because the practice had not begun of fighting in disciplined troops of horsemen, and the art had not been learnt of shooting accurately with the bow from the back of a galloping horse, especially shooting to the rear. In any case, its cavalry gave the feudal state of Chao a military advantage for a short time. Soon the other northern states copied it one after another--especially Ch'in, in north-west China. The introduction of cavalry brought a change in clothing all over China, for the former long skirt-like garb could not be worn on horseback. Trousers and the riding-cap were introduced from the north.

The new technique of war made it important for every state to possess as many soldiers as possible, and where it could to reduce the enemy's numbers. One result of this was that wars became much more sanguinary; another was that men in other countries were induced to immigrate and settle as peasants, so that the taxes they paid should provide the means for further recruitment of soldiers. In the state of Ch'in, especially, the practice soon started of using the whole of the peasantry simultaneously as a rough soldiery. Hence that state was particularly anxious to attract peasants in large numbers.

2 Economic changes In the course of the wars much land of former noblemen had become free. Often the former serfs had then silently become landowners. Others had started to cultivate empty land in the area inhabited by the indigenous population and regarded this land, which they themselves had made fertile, as their private family property. There was, in spite of the growth of the population, still much cultivable land available. Victorious feudal lords induced farmers to come to their territory and to cultivate the wasteland. This is a period of great migrations, internal and external. It seems that from this period on not only merchants but also farmers began to migrate southward into the area of the present provinces of Kwangtung and Kwangsi and as far as Tonking.

As long as the idea that all land belonged to the great clans of the Chou prevailed, sale of land was inconceivable; but when individual family heads acquired land or cultivated new land, they regarded it as their natural right to dispose of the land as they wished. From now on until the end of the medieval period, the family head as representative of the family could sell or buy land. However, the land belonged to the family and not to him as a person. This development was favoured by the spread of money. In time land in general became an asset with a market value and could be bought and sold.

Another important change can be seen from this time on. Under the feudal system of the Chou strict primogeniture among the nobility existed: the fief went to the oldest son by the main wife. The younger sons were given independent pieces of land with its inhabitants as new, secondary fiefs.

With the increase in population there was no more such land that could be set up as a new fief. From now on, primogeniture was retained in the field of ritual and religion down to the present time: only the oldest son of the main wife represents the family in the ancestor worship ceremonies; only the oldest son of the emperor could become his successor. But the landed property from now on was equally divided among all sons. Occasionally the oldest son was given some extra land to enable him to pay the expenses for the family ancestral worship. Mobile property, on the other side, was not so strictly regulated and often the oldest son was given preferential treatment in the inheritance.

The technique of cultivation underwent some significant changes. The animal-drawn plough seems to have been invented during this period, and from now on, some metal agricultural implements like iron sickles and iron plough-shares became more common. A fallow system was introduced so that cultivation became more intensive. Manuring of fields was already known in Shang time. It seems that the consumption of meat decreased from this period on: less mutton and beef were eaten. Pig and dog became the main sources of meat, and higher consumption of beans made up for the loss of proteins. All this indicates a strong population increase. We have no statistics for this period, but by 400 B.C. it is conceivable that the population under the control of the various individual states comprised something around twenty-five millions. The eastern plains emerge more and more as centres of production.

The increased use of metal and the invention of coins greatly stimulated trade. Iron which now became quite common, was produced mainly in Shansi, other metals in South China. But what were the traders to do with their profits? Even later in China, and almost down to recent times, it was never possible to hoard large quantities of money. Normally the money was of copper, and a considerable capital in the form of copper coin took up a good deal of room and was not easy to conceal. If anyone had much money, everyone in his village knew it. No one dared to hoard to any extent for fear of attracting bandits and creating lasting insecurity. On the other hand the merchants wanted to attain the standard of living which the nobles, the landowners, used to have. Thus they began to invest their

money in land. This was all the easier for them since it often happened that one of the lesser nobles or a peasant fell deeply into debt to a merchant and found himself compelled to give up his land in payment of the debt.

Soon the merchants took over another function. So long as there had been many small feudal states, and the feudal lords had created lesser lords with small fiefs, it had been a simple matter for the taxes to be collected, in the form of grain, from the peasants through the agents of the lesser lords. Now that there were only a few great states in existence, the old system was no longer effectual. This gave the merchants their opportunity. The rulers of the various states entrusted the merchants with the collection of taxes, and this had great advantages for the ruler: he could obtain part of the taxes at once, as the merchant usually had grain in stock, or was himself a landowner and could make advances at any time. Through having to pay the taxes to the merchant, the village population became dependent on him. Thus the merchants developed into the first administrative officials in the provinces.

In connection with the growth of business, the cities kept on growing. It is estimated that at the beginning of the third century, the city of Lin-chin, near the present Chi-nan in Shantung, had a population of 210,000 persons. Each of its walls had a length of 4,000 metres; thus, it was even somewhat larger than the famous city of Loyang, capital of China during the Later Han dynasty, in the second century A.D. Several other cities of this period have been recently excavated and must have had populations far above 10,000 persons. There were two types of cities: the rectangular, planned city of the Chou conquerors, a seat of administration; and the irregularly shaped city which grew out of a market place and became only later an administrative centre. We do not know much about the organization and administration of these cities, but they seem to have had considerable independence because some of them issued their own city coins.

When these cities grew, the food produced in the neighbourhood of the towns no longer sufficed for their inhabitants. This led to the building of roads, which also facilitated the transport of supplies for great armies.

These roads mainly radiated from the centre of consumption into the

surrounding country, and they were less in use for communication between one administrative centre and another. For long journeys the rivers were of more importance, since transport by wagon was always expensive owing to the shortage of draught animals. Thus we see in this period the first important construction of canals and a development of communications.

With the canal construction was connected the construction of irrigation and drainage systems, which further promoted agricultural production. The cities were places in which often great luxury developed; music, dance, and other refinements were cultivated; but the cities also seem to have harboured considerable industries. Expensive and technically superior silks were woven; painters decorated the walls of temples and palaces; blacksmiths and bronze-smiths produced beautiful vessels and implements. It seems certain that the art of casting iron and the beginnings of the production of steel were already known at this time. The life of the commoners in these cities was regulated by laws; the first codes are mentioned in 536 B.C. By the end of the fourth century B.C. a large body of criminal law existed, supposedly collected by Li K'uei, which became the foundation of all later Chinese law. It seems that in this period the states of China moved quickly towards a money economy, and an observer to whom the later Chinese history was not known could have predicted the eventual development of a capitalistic society out of the apparent tendencies.

So far nothing has been said in these chapters about China's foreign policy. Since the central ruling house was completely powerless, and the feudal lords were virtually independent rulers, little can be said, of course, about any "Chinese" foreign policy. There is less than ever to be said about it for this period of the "Contending States". Chinese merchants penetrated southward, and soon settlers moved in increasing numbers into the plains of the south-east. In the north, there were continual struggles with Turkish and Mongol tribes, and about 300 B.C. the name of the Hsiung-nu (who are often described as "The Huns of the Far East") makes its first appearance. It is known that these northern peoples had mastered the technique of horseback warfare and were far ahead of the Chinese, although the Chinese imitated their methods. The peasants of China, as they penetrated farther and farther north, had to be protected by their rulers against the northern

peoples, and since the rulers needed their armed forces for their struggles within China, a beginning was made with the building of frontier walls, to prevent sudden raids of the northern peoples against the peasant settlements. Thus came into existence the early forms of the "Great Wall of China". This provided for the first time a visible frontier between Chinese and non-Chinese. Along this frontier, just as by the walls of towns, great markets were held at which Chinese peasants bartered their produce to

non-Chinese nomads. Both partners in this trade became accustomed to it and drew very substantial profits from it. We even know the names of several great horse-dealers who bought horses from the nomads and sold them within China.

3 Cultural changes Together with the economic and social changes in this period, there came cultural changes. New ideas sprang up in exuberance, as would seem entirely natural, because in times of change and crisis men always come forward to offer solutions for pressing problems. We shall refer here only briefly to the principal philosophers of the period.

Mencius (c. 372-289 B.C.) and Hsün Tz[)u] (c. 298-238 B.C.) were both followers of Confucianism. Both belonged to the so-called "scholars", and both lived in the present Shantung, that is to say, in eastern China. Both elaborated the ideas of Confucius, but neither of them achieved personal success. Mencius (Meng Tz[)u]) recognized that the removal of the ruling house of the Chou no longer presented any difficulty. The difficult question for him was when a change of ruler would be justified. And how could it be ascertained whom Heaven had destined as successor if the existing dynasty was brought down? Mencius replied that the voice of the "people", that is to say of the upper class and its following, would declare the right man, and that this man would then be Heaven's nominee. This theory persisted throughout the history of China. Hsün Tz[)u]'s chief importance lies in the fact that he recognized that the "laws" of nature are unchanging but that man's fate is determined not by nature alone but, in addition, by his own activities. Man's nature is basically bad, but by working on himself within the framework of society, he can change his nature and can develop. Thus, Hsün Tz[)u]'s philosophy contains a dynamic element, fit for a dynamic period of history.

In the strongest contrast to these thinkers was the school of Mo Ti (at some time between 479 and 381 B.C.). The Confucian school held fast to the old feudal order of society, and was only ready to agree to a few superficial changes. The school of Mo Ti proposed to alter the fundamental principles of society. Family ethics must no longer be retained; the principles of family love must be extended to the whole upper class, which Mo Ti called the "people". One must love another member of the upper class just as much as one's own father. Then the friction between individuals and between states would cease. Instead of families, large groups of people friendly to one another must be created. Further one should live frugally and not expend endless money on effete rites, as the Confucianists demanded. The expenditure on weddings and funerals under the Confucianist ritual consumed so much money that many families fell into debt and, if they were unable to pay off the debt, sank from the upper into the lower class. In order to maintain the upper class, therefore, there must be more frugality. Mo Ti's teaching won great influence. He and his successors surrounded themselves with a private army of supporters which was rigidly organized and which could be brought into action at any time as its leader wished. Thus the Mohists came forward everywhere with an approach entirely different from that of the isolated Confucians. When the Mohists offered their assistance to a ruler, they brought with them a group of technical and military experts who had been trained on the same principles. In consequence of its great influence this teaching was naturally hotly opposed by the Confucianists.

We see clearly in Mo Ti's and his followers' ideas the influence of the changed times. His principle of "universal love" reflects the breakdown of the clans and the general weakening of family bonds which had taken place. His ideal of social organization resembles organizations of merchants and craftsmen which we know only of later periods. His stress upon frugality, too, reflects a line of thought which is typical of businessmen. The rationality which can also be seen in his metaphysical ideas and which has induced modern Chinese scholars to call him an early materialist is fitting to an age in which a developing money economy and expanding trade required a cool, logical approach to the affairs of this world.

A similar mentality can be seen in another school which appeared from the fifth century B.C. on, the "dialecticians". Here are a number of names to mention: the most important are Kung-sun Lung and Hui Tz[)u], who are comparable with the ancient Greek dialecticians and Sophists. They saw their main task in the development of logic. Since, as we have mentioned, many "scholars" journeyed from one princely court to another, and other people came forward, each recommending his own method to the prince for the increase of his power, it was of great importance to be able to talk convincingly, so as to defeat a rival in a duel of words on logical grounds.

Unquestionably, however, the most important school of this period was that of the so-called Legalists, whose most famous representative was Shang Yang (or Shang Tz[)u], died 338 B.C.). The supporters of this school came principally from old princely families that had lost their feudal possessions, and not from among the so-called scholars. They were people belonging to the upper class who possessed political experience and now offered their knowledge to other princes who still reigned. These men had entirely given up the old conservative traditions of Confucianism; they were the first to make their peace with the new social order. They recognized that little or nothing remained of the old upper class of feudal lords and their following. The last of the feudal lords collected around the heads of the last remaining princely courts, or lived quietly on the estates that still remained to them.

Such a class, with its moral and economic strength broken, could no longer lead. The Legalists recognized, therefore, only the ruler and next to him, as the really active and responsible man, the chancellor; under these there were to be only the common people, consisting of the richer and poorer peasants; the people's duty was to live and work for the ruler, and to carry out without question whatever orders they received. They were not to discuss or think, but to obey. The chancellor was to draft laws which came automatically into operation. The ruler himself was to have nothing to do with the government or with the application of the laws. He was only a symbol, a representative of the equally inactive Heaven. Clearly these theories were much the best suited to the conditions of the break-up of feudalism about 300 B.C. Thus they were first adopted by the state in which the old idea of the feudal state had been least developed, the state of Ch'in, in which alien peoples were most strongly represented. Shang Yang

became the actual organizer of the state of Ch'in. His ideas were further developed by Han Fei Tz[)u] (died 233 B.C.). The mentality which speaks out of his writings has closest similarity to the famous Indian Arthashastra which originated slightly earlier; both books exhibit a "Machiavellian" spirit. It must be observed that these theories had little or nothing to do with the ideas of the old cult of Heaven or with family allegiance; on the other hand, the soldierly element, with the notion of obedience, was well suited to the militarized peoples of the west. The population of Ch'in, organized throughout on these principles, was then in a position to remove one opponent after another. In the middle of the third century B.C. the greater part of the China of that time was already in the hands of Ch'in, and in 256

B.C. the last emperor of the Chou dynasty was compelled, in his complete impotence, to abdicate in favour of the ruler of Ch'in.

Apart from these more or less political speculations, there came into existence in this period, by no mere chance, a school of thought which never succeeded in fully developing in China, concerned with natural science and comparable with the Greek natural philosophy. We have already several times pointed to parallels between Chinese and Indian thoughts. Such similarities may be the result of mere coincidence. But recent findings in Central Asia indicate that direct connections between India, Persia, and China may have started at a time much earlier than we had formerly thought. Sogdian merchants who later played a great role in commercial contacts might have been active already from 350 or 400 B.C. on and might have been the transmitters of new ideas. The most important philosopher of this school was Tsou Yen (flourished between 320 and 295 B.C.); he, as so many other Chinese philosophers of this time, was a native of Shantung, and the ports of the Shantung coast may well have been ports of entrance of new ideas from Western Asia as were the roads through the Turkestan basin into Western China. Tsou Yen's basic ideas had their root in earlier Chinese speculations: the doctrine that all that exists is to be explained by the positive, creative, or the negative, passive action (Yang and Yin) of the five elements, wood, fire, earth, metal, and water (Wu hsing). But Tsou Yen also considered the form of the world, and was the first to put forward the theory that the world consists not of a single continent with China in the middle of it, but of nine continents. The names

of these continents sound like Indian names, and his idea of a central

world-mountain may well have come from India. The "scholars" of his time were quite unable to appreciate this beginning of science, which actually led to the contention of this school, in the first century B.C., that the earth was of spherical shape. Tsou Yen himself was ridiculed as a dreamer; but very soon, when the idea of the reciprocal destruction of the elements was applied, perhaps by Tsou Yen himself, to politics, namely when, in connection with the astronomical calculations much cultivated by this school and through the identification of dynasties with the five elements, the attempt was made to explain and to calculate the duration and the supersession of dynasties, strong pressure began to be brought to bear against this school. For hundreds of years its books were distributed and read only in secret, and many of its members were executed as revolutionaries. Thus, this school, instead of becoming the nucleus of a school of natural science, was driven underground. The secret societies which started to arise clearly from the first century B.C. on, but which may have been in existence earlier, adopted the politico-scientific ideas of Tsou Yen's school. Such secret societies have existed in China down to the present time. They all contained a strong religious, but heterodox element which can often be traced back to influences from a foreign religion. In times of peace they were centres of a true, emotional religiosity. In times of stress, a "messianic" element tended to become prominent: the world is bad and degenerating; morality and a just social order have decayed, but the coming of a savior is close; the saviour will bring a new, fair order and destroy those who are wicked. Tsou Yen's philosophy seemed to allow them to calculate when this new order would start; later secret societies contained ideas from Iranian Mazdaism, Manichaeism and Buddhism, mixed with traits from the popular religions and often couched in terms taken from the Taoists. The members of such societies were, typically, ordinary farmers who here found an emotional outlet for their frustrations in daily life. In times of stress, members of the leading _élite_ often but not always established contacts with these societies, took over their leadership and led them to open rebellion. The fate of Tsou Yen's school did not mean that the Chinese did not develop in the field of sciences. At about Tsou Yen's lifetime, the first mathematical handbook was written. From these books it is obvious that the interest of the government in calculating the

exact size of fields, the content of measures for grain, and other fiscal problems stimulated work in this field, just as astronomy developed from the interest of the government in the fixation of the calendar. Science kept on developing in other fields, too, but mainly as a hobby of scholars and in the shops of craftsmen, if it did not have importance for the administration and especially taxation and budget calculations.

Chapter Five

THE CH'IN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.)

1 Towards the unitary State In 256 B.C. the last ruler of the Chou dynasty abdicated in favour of the feudal lord of the state of Ch'in. Some people place the beginning of the Ch'in dynasty in that year, 256 B.C.; others prefer the date 221 B.C., because it was only in that year that the remaining feudal states came to their end and Ch'in really ruled all China.

The territories of the state of Ch'in, the present Shensi and eastern Kansu, were from a geographical point of view transit regions, closed off in the north by steppes and deserts and in the south by almost impassable mountains. Only between these barriers, along the rivers Wei (in Shensi) and T'ao (in Kansu), is there a rich cultivable zone which is also the only means of transit from east to west. All traffic from and to Turkestan had to take this route. It is believed that strong relations with eastern Turkestan began in this period, and the state of Ch'in must have drawn big profits from its "foreign trade". The merchant class quickly gained more and more importance. The population was growing through immigration from the east which the government encouraged. This growing population with its increasing means of production, especially the great new irrigation systems, provided a welcome field for trade which was also furthered by the roads, though these were actually built for military purposes.

The state of Ch'in had never been so closely associated with the feudal communities of the rest of China as the other feudal states. A great part of its population, including the ruling class, was not purely Chinese but contained an admixture of Turks and Tibetans. The other Chinese even called Ch'in a "barbarian state", and the foreign influence was, indeed, unceasing. This was a favourable soil for the overcoming of feudalism, and the process was furthered by the factors mentioned in the preceding chapter, which were leading to a change in the social structure of China.

Especially the recruitment of the whole population, including the peasantry, for war was entirely in the interest of the influential nomad fighting peoples within the state. About 250 B.C., Ch'in was not only one of the economically strongest among the feudal states, but had already made an end of its own feudal system.

Every feudal system harbours some seeds of a bureaucratic system of administration: feudal lords have their personal servants who are not recruited from the nobility, but who by their easy access to the lord can easily gain importance. They may, for instance, be put in charge of estates, workshops, and other properties of the lord and thus acquire experience in administration and an efficiency which are obviously of advantage to the lord. When Chinese lords of the preceding period, with the help of their sub-lords of the nobility, made wars, they tended to put the

newly-conquered areas not into the hands of newly-enfeoffed noblemen, but to keep them as their property and to put their administration into the hands of efficient servants; these were the first bureaucratic officials. Thus, in the course of the later Chou period, a bureaucratic system of administration had begun to develop, and terms like "district" or "prefecture" began to appear, indicating that areas under a bureaucratic administration existed beside and inside areas under feudal rule. This process had gone furthest in Ch'in and was sponsored by the representatives of the Legalist School, which was best adapted to the new economic and social situation.

A son of one of the concubines of the penultimate feudal ruler of Ch'in was living as a hostage in the neighbouring state of Chao, in what is now northern Shansi. There he made the acquaintance of an unusual man, the

merchant Lü Pu-wei, a man of education and of great political influence. Lü Pu-wei persuaded the feudal ruler of Ch'in to declare this son his successor. He also sold a girl to the prince to be his wife, and the son of this marriage was to be the famous and notorious Shih Huang-ti. Lü Pu-wei came with his protege to Ch'in, where he became his Prime Minister, and after the prince's death in 247 B.C. Lü Pu-wei became the regent for his young son Shih Huang-ti (then called Cheng). For the first time in Chinese history a merchant, a commoner, had reached one of the highest positions in the state. It is not known what sort of trade Lü Pu-wei had carried on, but probably he dealt in horses, the principal export of the state of Chao. As horses were an absolute necessity for the armies of that time, it is easy to imagine that a horse-dealer might gain great political influence.

SRI LANKA

Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka: Buddha statue

Sri Lanka has had a continuous record of human settlement for more than two millennia, and its civilization has been shaped largely by that of the Indian subcontinent. The island’s two major ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils, and its two dominant religions, Buddhism and Hinduism, made their way to the island from India, and Indian influence pervaded such diverse fields as art, architecture, literature, music, medicine, and astronomy.

Despite its obvious affinities with India, Sri Lanka nevertheless developed a unique identity over the ages that ultimately set it apart from its neighbour. Cultural traits brought from India necessarily underwent independent growth and change in Sri Lanka, owing in part to the island’s physical separation from the subcontinent. Buddhism, for instance, virtually disappeared from India, but it continued to flourish in Sri Lanka, particularly among the Sinhalese. Moreover, the Sinhalese language, which grew out of Indo-Aryan dialects from the mainland, eventually became indigenous solely to Sri Lanka and developed its own literary tradition.

Also important to Sri Lanka’s cultural development has been its position as the nexus of important maritime trade routes between Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Long before the European discovery of an oceanic route to India in the 15th century, Sri Lanka was known to Greek, Roman, Persian, Armenian, Arab, Malay, and Chinese sailors. With the coming of the Europeans, however, the strategic importance of Sri Lanka increased, and Western maritime powers fought to control its shores. Both Sri Lanka and India came under European influence and colonial rule. This common experience worked to tighten the long-standing links between the two countries, and, with the attainment of independence in the mid-20th century, Sri Lankan and Indian social institutions and ideologies began to resonate more closely with each other.

Prehistoric record

Geologically, Sri Lanka is an extension of peninsular India that separated from the mainland perhaps as recently as the Miocene Epoch (roughly 25 to 5 million years ago). Archaeological excavations undertaken since the late 20th century have indicated that the island already supported human inhabitants some 75,000 to 125,000 years ago. The earliest occupants of the region were, like other Paleolithic peoples, hunters and gatherers who made and used fairly rough stone tools. Finer tools made of quartz and occasionally of chert become visible in the archaeological record about 28,000 years ago. The artifacts from this era, which include many microliths (very small, sharp flakes of stone that can be used individually or hafted together to make a serrated edge), have been found throughout the country, especially among the grasslands of the hills and the sandy tracts of the coast. By about the 9th century BCE, people had begun to experiment with food production and irrigation and had gained access to some of the iron tools produced on the continent.

Early settlement and the spread of Buddhism

Sri Lanka’s earliest human inhabitants of whom there is direct fossil evidence were hunter-gatherers in the area of Balangoda in the south. Urban settlements first appeared in the 10th century BCE near Anuradhapura in north-central Sri Lanka. The ancestors of the Sinhalese, who were speakers of Indo-Aryan languages, migrated from northern India about the 5th century BCE. The Tamils were probably later immigrants from areas of central, eastern, and southern India where Dravidian languages were spoken; their early migrations spanned a period from about the 3rd century BCE to about 1200 CE.

Sri Lanka possesses a historical tradition preserved in written form by Buddhist chroniclers. The earliest of the extant chronicles is the Dipavamsa (“Island’s Chronicle”), compiled probably by Buddhist nuns in the 4th century CE. The Dipavamsa was followed by the Mahavamsa (“Great Chronicle”) and its continuation, called the Culavamsa (“Little Chronicle”). Together, these chronicles constitute a literary record of the establishment and growth of Sinhalese political power and of Sri Lankan Buddhism; however, the documents must be used with caution and always in conjunction with archaeological—especially epigraphic—material.

Legendary origins

According to the Sinhalese tradition, as recorded in the Mahavamsa, the first Indian settlers on Sri Lanka were Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers, who landed on the west coast near Puttalam (5th century BCE). They had been banished for misconduct from the kingdom of Sinhapura in northern India by Vijaya’s father, King Sinhabahu, who put them all in a ship and drove them away. When Vijaya’s band landed on the island, it was inhabited by yakshas (a type of spirit; perhaps referring here to human members of a cult of yaksha devotees), whom they defeated and chased into the interior. Vijaya married a yaksha princess and had two children by her. Later he drove her and the children away and sent to the Madurai court in India for a Pandu (probably referring to the Pandya dynasty) princess and for wives for his 700 followers. Vijaya settled down to reign as king after a ceremonial enthronement and marriage and founded a dynasty. He had no heir to the throne, and toward the end of his reign he sent for his younger brother at Sinhapura. The brother, unwilling to leave his native land, sent his youngest son, Panduvasudeva, to Sri Lanka. Panduvasudeva landed with 32 followers at Gokanna (now Trincomalee) on the east coast. He was enthroned at Upatissagama and continued the Vijaya dynasty.

Indo-Aryan settlement

The account of Sri Lanka’s settlement as presented in the Mahavamsa contains an element of historical fact—the settlers were Indo-Aryan peoples from northern India. However, controversy exists as to the exact provenance of the early settlers; the legends contain evidence pointing to both the northeastern and the northwestern parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Vijaya’s ancestors hailed from Bengal, in the northeast, but his father established himself subsequently in Gujarat, the area in northwest India from which the adventurers were put out to sea. Before arriving in Sri Lanka, their ship called at Supara, on the west coast of India. Their landing in Sri Lanka, at Tambapanni, near Puttalam, would indicate their arrival from western India. Some early tribal names occurring in Sri Lanka also suggest connections with northwestern India and the Indus River region.

While considerable evidence points to western India as the home of the first immigrants, it seems probable that a subsequent wave arrived from the vicinity of Bengal and Orissa in the northeast. One band of settlers landed in Sri Lanka at the east-coast port of Gokanna, a natural port of disembarkation for vessels arriving from the Bay of Bengal. The traditional accounts of the arrival of Panduvasudeva may portray a second wave of migration following the first mentioned in the Vijaya legend. Linguistic affinities between the early Sinhalese- and Prakrit-speaking peoples of eastern India strengthen the hypothesis of a migration from this area.

The tradition speaks primarily of settlement by conquest, and tribes of conquerors led by a warrior nobility would certainly have propelled the Indo-Aryan migration southward. Also important, however, was the pursuit of trade (as opposed to military conquest). Indo-Aryan merchants probably reached Sri Lanka while sailing down the Indian coast, and some of these merchants, motivated by a lucrative trade in Sri Lanka’s natural products, may have founded settlements.

The view that Indo-Aryan migrants laid the foundations of Sinhalese civilization increasingly has come into question since the late 20th century. Archaeological evidence has indicated that settled agriculture, tank irrigation, use of iron, and pottery were features present before the Indo-Aryan migrations. During the early phases of these migrations, a synthesis seems to have taken place between Indo-Aryan, pre-Indo-Aryan, and possibly Dravidian elements to create the early Sinhalese culture of the Anuradhapura period, which spanned the 3rd century BCE to the 10th century CE. The chronicled account of Vijaya’s confrontation with the yakshas and the search for consorts in the Pandu kingdom of Madurai (if this may be presumed to be the Pandya Tamil kingdom of southern India) point to such integration.

In any case, Indo-Aryan settlements grew in different parts of the island from about the 5th century BCE. The settlers came in numerous clans or tribes; the most powerful were the Sinhalese, who eventually gave their name to the descendants of the various groups. The earliest settlers were those on the west-central coast, who pushed inland along the Malwatu River and founded a number of riverbank villages. Their seat of government was Upatissagama.

Tradition attributes the founding of the kingdom of Anuradhapura to Pandukkabhaya, the third king of the Vijaya dynasty. With its growth as the strongest Sinhalese kingdom, the city of Anuradhapura and the nearby settlements flourished. Kings built up the city and developed it for urban life as they extended royal control over villages and outlying settlements. With the establishment of strong government, the population grew and the kingdom expanded into the north-central region.

Conversion to Buddhism

According to Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka by a mission sent out from eastern India during the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (c. 273–232 BCE). The leader of the mission to Sri Lanka, Mahendra (Mahinda), is described as Ashoka’s son. Mahendra and his colleagues traveled to the Mihintale hill (the site of some of the earliest inscriptions), 8 miles (13 km) from Anuradhapura. There they chanced to meet the Sinhalese king Tissa, to whom they delivered a sermon on Buddhism. The king was brought into the Buddhist fold, and he invited Mahendra and his followers to the city. The missionaries were settled in a royal pavilion in the city park of Mahamegha, where they preached first to members of the royal family and then to the common people. Many embraced the new religion, some taking holy orders and joining the Buddhist sangha (community of monks). The king donated the Mahamegha park to the sangha. Meanwhile, the monastery of Mahavihara was established, and it became the prime centre of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Mahendra sent for his sister Sanghamitta, who arrived with a branch of the Bo tree (at Bodh Gaya), under which the Buddha had attained enlightenment. The sapling was ceremonially planted in the city. Sanghamitta founded an order of nuns, and a stupa (shrine), the Thuparamacetiya, was built by the king for popular worship. Thus, with the founding of these and other institutions, Buddhism became an established religion in Sri Lanka.

Through the conversion of King Tissa and the missionary activity of monks in the villages, by the 2nd century BCE the Sinhalese had accepted Buddhism, and this faith helped produce a unity and consciousness on which subsequent political and economic strength was founded. However, it should be recognized that while the monastic chronicles accord the pride of place to Buddhism, other religions also were practiced on the island. Jainism, for instance, probably represented another major religious tradition, and a Jain monastery is mentioned in the Mahavamsa. The chronicle also indicates the presence of Brahmans—Hindus of the highest social rank—in Sri Lanka.

Early growth and political centralization, c. 200 BCE–1255 CE

Expansion of Buddhism preceded political unification; many of the areas embraced by the new religion were still ruled by a multitude of chiefs. The ruler of Anuradhapura, Duttagamani Abhaya (reigned 161–137 BCE), was preeminent among these chiefs, and, as Buddhism spread, the Anuradhapura kingdom extended its political control over the rest of Sri Lanka.

The Anuradhapura period

Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka: Abhayagiri stupa

The Vijaya dynasty of kings continued, with brief interruptions, until 65 CE, when Vasabha, a member of the Lambakanna royal family, founded the Lambakanna dynasty. The Lambakannas ruled for about four centuries. Their most noteworthy king was Mahasena (reigned 276–303), who constructed many major irrigation systems and championed heterodox Buddhist sects.

Sigiriya, Sri Lanka: apsara

A Pandyan invasion from southern India put an end to this dynasty and, briefly, to Sinhalese rule in 432. Dhatusena (reigned 459–477) defeated the Pandyas and reestablished Sinhalese rule with the line of Moriya kings. His son Kashyapa I (reigned 477–495) moved the capital from Anuradhapura to the rock fortress of Sigiriya. After Kashyapa’s dethronement the capital was returned to Anuradhapura.

From the 7th century there was an increase in the involvement of south Indian powers in the island’s politics and in the presence of Tamil mercenaries in and around the capital. Manavamma, a Sinhalese royal fugitive, was placed on the throne in 684 with the support of the Pallava rulers of south India.

Manavamma founded the second Lambakanna dynasty, which reigned in Anuradhapura for about 400 years. The dynasty produced a number of distinguished kings, who consolidated and extended Sinhalese political power. During this period, Sinhalese involvement with southern India was even closer. Sinhalese kings were drawn into the dynastic battles between the Pandyas, Pallavas, and Colas. Invasions from south India to Sri Lanka and retaliatory raids were a recurrent phenomenon. In the 10th century the island’s political and military power weakened because of regional particularism and internecine warfare; the Colas—hostile because of the Sinhalese alliance with Pandya—attacked and occupied the Sinhalese kingdom in 993 and annexed Rajarata (in the north-central region of Sri Lanka) as a province of the Cola empire. The conquest was completed in 1017, when the Colas seized the southern province of Ruhuna.

The Polonnaruwa period

The Colas occupied Sri Lanka until 1070, when Vijayabahu liberated the island and reestablished Sinhalese power. He shifted the capital eastward to Polonnaruwa, a city that was easier to defend against south Indian attacks and that controlled the route to Ruhuna. The capital remained there for some 150 years. The most colourful king of the Polonnaruwa period was Parakramabahu I (reigned 1153–86), under whom the kingdom enjoyed its greatest prosperity. He followed a strong foreign policy, dispatching a punitive naval expedition to Myanmar (Burma) and sending the army to invade the Pandyan kingdom; however, these initiatives achieved no permanent success. After Parakramabahu I the throne passed to the Kalinga dynasty, and the influence of south India increased. Nissankamalla (reigned c. 1186–96) was the last effective ruler of this period. The last Polonnaruwa king was Magha (reigned 1215–36), an adventurer from south India who seized power and ruled with severity.

Government and society

Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka: vatadage

Kingship was the unifying political institution in the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods, a symbol of the aims and achievements of the Sinhalese people. The kingship was essentially Brahmanic (hereditary within the priestly social class), with strong Buddhist influences; all the kings were practicing Buddhists and patrons of Buddhist institutions. The support and blessing of the clergy, moreover, were perceived as essential to a peaceful and continuous reign. This connection between kingship and Buddhism enabled Buddhism to flourish. Kings built, maintained, and endowed many shrines and monasteries, and they intervened to establish order and prevent schism within the Buddhist community. Nobles and commoners too were lavish in their support, and thus Buddhist institutions prospered. Many beautiful temples were built with finely carved sculpture, and monasteries thrived as centres of learning in the Pali and Sinhalese languages and in Buddhist philosophy.

The king was supported by an inner administrative hierarchy consisting of members of his family and influential nobles. The yuvaraja, the king’s chosen heir to the throne, was given responsible office. The army was the major prop of royal absolutism, and the senapati, or commander in chief, was the king’s closest counselor and confidant.

Sinhalese society was segmented into social classes—castes—each of which performed a particular occupation. (The caste system in Sri Lanka, however, was not as rigid as its counterpart in India.) The Govi, or cultivators, made up the highest caste in Sri Lanka, but many other castes also engaged in farming. Administrative officials were drawn from the Govi caste, which was stratified into chiefs, titled men, and peasants. Chiefs were important supporters of royal absolutism and helped administer the government. Nonagricultural people, the Hina, were considered of lower rank and were divided into occupational groups. These caste groups were endogamous; each lived in its own section, along particular streets. Castes were stratified in terms of status, with the lowest on the scale—the candala—performing the most menial of jobs.

The advent and impact of irrigation

The Sinhalese civilization was hydraulic, based on the storage and use of water for the regular cultivation of wet fields. The early Indo-Aryan settlers cultivated rice and settled along river valleys and other suitable lands. They began with simple schemes for damming rivers and storing water below them. Small systems for storing water in reservoirs by tapping seasonal streams later became a feature of nearly every village; these waterworks probably were managed communally by the landowners of the village. With the increase in royal power, the attraction of greater revenue through greater production made kings play an active role in the construction of large-scale irrigation schemes. Beginning about the 1st century CE during the reign of King Vasabha, large perennial rivers were blocked with massive earthen dams to create colossal reservoirs. With increasingly sophisticated irrigation technology, water from these reservoirs was delivered through canals to distant fields and through underground channels to the capital city.

Further technological progress was achieved in the 3rd century during the reign of King Mahasena; a number of storage tanks and canals are attributed to him, the most outstanding of which is the Minneriya tank and its feeder canals. The construction and maintenance of monumental irrigation works became a regular preoccupation of kings. Reservoirs and canals studded the northern and north-central plains, tapping every source of water. Among the most noteworthy was the magnificent Parakrama Samudra in Polonnaruwa, the crowning glory of Parakramabahu I’s reign, with a storage area of more than 5,000 acres (2,000 hectares) for the irrigation of 18,000 acres (7,300 hectares).

Operation of the large works demanded a great deal of coordination and central control; mobilization of labour and technical skill was required at the construction stage, and bureaucratic machinery was essential to keeping the system in repair. Among the primary functions of the central administration was the enforcement of regulations to coordinate cultivation of irrigated plots, to control the flow of water, and to collect water dues from the irrigation operators. Such effective and efficient water management led to increased productivity, which ultimately increased the power of the king.

Many medium and small irrigation works were, however, initiated and managed by regional and village authorities, who became important props of royal authority. When rights to revenue were devolved to these local notables, a feudal system began to emerge, with feudal relations proliferating especially rapidly after 1200.

A grain tax, the water dues, and trade in surplus grain were major sources of the king’s revenue. They sustained strong political and military power for more than a millennium and enabled the dispatch of expeditions abroad. Increased revenue also made possible widespread religious construction, which, along with remarkable accomplishments in the plastic arts and irrigation, was a hallmark of the reign of Parakramabahu I.

The fall of Polonnaruwa

When Parakramabahu I died in 1186, the throne passed to the non-Sinhalese Kalinga dynasty—to Nissankamalla, brother of Parakramabahu I’s Kalinga queen. Following the death of Nissankamalla in 1196, the Polonnaruwa kingdom was weakened by a succession of ineffective rulers. Non-Sinhalese factions such as the Kalingas and Pandyas of India gained power in Sri Lanka as a result of dynastic marriages with south Indian royalty; conflict between these factions was common. South Indian notables occupied positions of influence under Kalinga kings, and their power was buttressed by mercenaries of various origins. In 1214 Magha of the Kalingas invaded Sri Lanka with the help of thousands of such mercenaries, and he took control of the whole island. Magha’s rule, a veritable reign of terror, lasted until 1255 and was marked by bold disregard of traditional authority and of established religion. Polonnaruwa itself fell into the hands of non-Sinhalese elements, each vying with the others for power and office.

Drift to the southwest (1255–1505)

Political changes

With central control from Polonnaruwa further weakened after the death of Magha and ruling kings of foreign descent being unable to exercise political control over outlying provinces, members of the traditional ruling class gravitated to centres of Sinhalese power located away from the reach of Polonnaruwa. Such centres generally lay to the southwest, in strategic, relatively inaccessible areas that were defensible from attack. Dakkhinadesa, a region to the west of the central mountains, was one such area. The first site chosen to reestablish the Sinhalese kingdom, however, was Dambadeniya, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Polonnaruwa; Vijayabahu III (reigned 1232–36) and his three successors (all part of the Dambadeniya dynasty) ruled from there. They made occasional successful raids into Rajarata to attack the Kalinga and Tamil rulers but did not attempt to reoccupy Polonnaruwa. Under Parakramabahu II (reigned 1236–70) the Dambadeniya kingdom achieved great power; it was able to expel the Kalingas from the island with Pandyan help and to repel an invasion by Malays from Southeast Asia.

Bhuvanaika Bahu I (reigned 1272–84) moved the capital northward to Yapahuwa, an isolated rock, which he strengthened with ramparts and trenches. His successors moved the capital southward again to Kurunegala and then to Gampola toward the Central Highlands about 1344. Meanwhile, the Alagakonara, a powerful Sinhalese family, attained a strong position at Rayigama, near the west coast; the Muslim traveler Ibn Baṭṭūṭah, who visited Sri Lanka in 1344, referred to one of the Alagakonaras as a sultan named Alkonar. In 1412 the capital was taken by Parakramabahu VI (reigned 1412–67) to Kotte, a few miles from present-day Colombo; for a brief period under this king, the Kotte kingdom expanded and acquired sovereignty over the island.

The effective control of the Sinhalese kings from roughly 1200 to 1505 generally did not extend far beyond their capital cities, though extravagant claims were often made to the contrary. Taking advantage of the collapse of the Polonnaruwa kingdom after Magha’s fall and of the drift of Sinhalese political authority to the southwest, a south Indian dynasty called the Arya Chakaravartis seized power in the north. By the beginning of the 14th century, it had founded a Tamil kingdom, its capital at Nallur in the Jaffna Peninsula. The kingdom of Jaffna soon expanded southward, initiating a tradition of conflict with the Sinhalese, though Rajarata—by then a largely depopulated country—existed as a buffer between them.

A politically divided and weakened island was an enticement to foreign invasions in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. The second Pandyan empire was constantly interfering in the affairs of Sri Lanka; its forces often supported rival claimants to power and took back considerable sums in payment and booty—including on one occasion the Tooth Relic, venerated as a tooth of the Buddha and a sacred symbol of Sinhalese sovereignty. The Malay ruler Chandrabhanu invaded the island in 1247 and 1258, for reasons not altogether clear. Forces of the Vijayanagar empire in south India invaded Sri Lanka on a few occasions in the 15th century, and for a brief period the Jaffna kingdom became its tributary. Zheng He, the great admiral of the third Ming emperor of China, led a series of expeditions into the Indian Ocean. On his first expedition (1405–07) Zheng landed in Sri Lanka but withdrew hastily; he returned in 1411, defeated the ruler Vira Alakeshvara, and took him and his minister captive to China.

Social and economic changes

The drift of Sinhalese political power to the southwest following the collapse of Polonnaruwa in the mid-13th century had drastic social and economic consequences. Population gradually shifted in the direction to which the capital was shifting; this led to neglect of the interconnected systems of water storage. The once-flourishing Rajarata became a devastated ruin of depopulated villages, overgrown jungle, and dried-up tank beds as the centres of Sinhalese population arose in the monsoon-watered lands of the south, the southwest, and the Central Highlands. Consequent changes in agricultural techniques, land use, ownership patterns, and ways of life followed swiftly.

Collapse of the Dry Zone civilization

A combination of factors brought about the demise of the hydraulic civilization that had once flourished in Sri Lanka’s Dry Zone—primarily in the northern and eastern parts of the island. Most notable of these factors were the depletion of the treasury and the failure of the irrigation system. Under Parakramabahu I the pursuit of an active foreign policy and the many wars it involved were serious burdens on the treasury; indeed, the maintenance of a strong standing army and navy was a great expense for all the Polonnaruwa kings. The construction and upkeep of the magnificent Buddhist monuments of the Polonnaruwa period also likely strained Sri Lanka’s economy.

The most visible sign of the collapse of the hydraulic civilization was the breakdown of its elaborate system of irrigation, on which agricultural productivity depended. The operation of the system was disrupted when the traditional Sinhalese aristocracy was eased out of authority. In place of the aristocracy, mercenary military officers were dispersed throughout the country to uphold law and order and to assume administrative functions. Meanwhile, the Sinhalese noble families withdrew from Rajarata to the courts of Sinhalese leaders who had set themselves up in other parts of the country. Thus, the managerial network that had maintained the agricultural and irrigation systems disappeared, and operations broke down. The new military administrators had neither the capacity nor the interest to maintain the irrigation system. Many of the larger reservoirs were breached, and smaller tanks that were fed by excess waters from them also lost their supply. (Some of the destruction was deliberate, caused by rival armies to flood a part of the country.) The amount of water stored for cultivation was reduced, which in turn reduced the area of cultivable land. Agriculture became dependent on the uncertain rains, and the people waged a losing battle against the advancing forest. The country could not maintain its previous population density. Consequently, people started following their leaders toward areas with greater rainfall.

New cultivation techniques

Population centres formed in the hospitable areas of the south, the southwest, and the Central Highlands. The marked difference in climate and topography required new techniques of cultivation. Though rice cultivation continued as an important activity, paddies had to be terraced, and the flow of water had to be regulated to suit the undulating land. These changes in agricultural methods demanded a different irrigation system that could not attempt to rival the scale of the Dry Zone schemes. Other grains amenable to the highland climate were grown as a supplement to rice, and garden cultivation—helped by excessive rains—became significant. Coconut, easily grown in the wetlands of the coast and the highlands, became an important food. Because of the abundance of land, shifting agriculture was practiced along the slopes of the hills. Farming was generally of a subsistence character.

Foreign trade

With the decline in agricultural productivity, trade became an important source of state revenue, and spices were the most important exports. Cinnamon, indigenous to the southwestern forests, became an export commodity in the 14th century, while pepper and other spices increased in export value. Trade in these items was monopolized by the royalty; kings entered into contracts with foreign merchants, fixed prices, and received the revenue. The people of the land were not involved in any aspect of this trade, nor did they benefit directly from it. Colombo and Galle became prominent ports of external trade; smaller ports in the southwest became centres of coastal and Indian trade. Almost all the traders were foreigners who settled in colonies in and around these ports.

The major international traders were the Arabs, who had been attracted by the luxury products of Sri Lanka since about the 10th century. Arabs were interested in cinnamon and spices, which began to fetch good prices in Western markets. In 1283 the Sinhalese king Bhuvanaika Bahu I sent an embassy to the Mamlūk sultan of Egypt to seek a commercial agreement.

Land control

Some significant changes took place in land relations and land control during this period. The grain tax—payable directly to the state in cash or in kind—that had been central to the land revenue system in the northern regions diminished in importance as the Sinhalese relocated southward. In part this was attributable to a breakdown in the administration; kings could no longer maintain a specialized machinery for the assessment and collection of the grain tax and other land taxes. The tax system therefore was replaced by a system of service tenure, under which a large proportion of the land was held on the basis of an obligation of service to the state. This service could be used by the state to various ends, including the cultivation of royal lands, the payment of officials (through assignment of service), and the maintenance of public utilities. Taxpaying lands and service lands were gradually merged. Each plot had a fixed service attached to it, and anyone who enjoyed that land had to perform a particular service. These services were extensively assigned to village and regional notables in order to attract their support. The commutation of tax for service also meant a decrease in the circulation of money; copper coins replaced those of gold and silver.

Cities

Capitals were now selected (and constructed) for their military defensibility; they were relatively small, located in difficult terrain, and somewhat isolated from populated areas. Communications between settlements were difficult, and excessive mobility was discouraged for military reasons. Moreover, the subsistence character of farming curtailed internal trade. Consequently, cities were not centres of economic life as in the past; they no longer attracted large groups of artisans, merchants, servants, and others dependent on the ruling groups. Rather, they were primarily of military importance.

Religious and ethnolinguistic changes

The Buddhist monasteries and temples had been beneficiaries of the hydraulic system of the Dry Zone. Lands, taxes, and water dues were assigned to temples. In addition, the temples had accumulated assets by making their own investments in land and by excavating their own tanks. With the changes in irrigation and agricultural practices, however, these sources of revenue declined. Kings continued their patronage of Buddhism, but their wealth and power diminished. Nobles and commoners were not rich enough to make substantial benefactions. The great monasteries of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa were disbanded. New institutions arose in and around the capitals of Dambadeniya, Kurunegala, Gampola, Rayigama, and Kotte, but they were not of the size or stature of their predecessors in the Dry Zone. The absence of strong political authority also affected the unity and coherence of the monastic organization itself. In this period there was a greater incidence of indiscipline and schism than before, and kings were called upon frequently to purge the sangha (monkhood) of undesirable elements.

The influence of Hinduism on Buddhist institutions, theology, and ways of life was more marked during this period as well. The ruling classes mixed extensively with Tamil royal and noble families, and there was an influx of Brahmans from south India to all parts of the country. Vedic (pertaining to the religion that predated Hinduism in the Indian subcontinent) and post-Vedic gods now assumed importance and were worshipped by kings and commoners in elaborate festivals. For instance, the worship of entities called devas became a prominent feature of popular Buddhism.

One of the consequences of the drift of the Sinhalese kingdoms to the southwest and the establishment of the Tamil kingdom in the Jaffna Peninsula to the north was the division of the island into two ethnolinguistic areas. Before this division occurred, Tamil settlements were interspersed among the Sinhalese throughout the island. Then the northern and eastern areas became predominantly Tamil; their numbers were strengthened by fresh migrations from south India after the collapse of the Pandyan kingdom in the 14th century.

Jaffna, as the capital of the Tamil kingdom, became the seat of Tamil Hindu culture, with a social organization somewhat akin to that of the Tamil districts of south India. The caste of landowning cultivators—the Vellala—formed the pivot of the social structure, and its members held both political and economic power. A number of lesser castes stood in varying degrees of service relationship to the Vellala. Hindu institutions were supported by the kings and the people and were strengthened by the influx of Brahmans. Brahmanic temples sprang up in many parts of Jaffna, and rituals and sessions of public worship were held regularly. The Tamil language established deep roots in the island and became one of Sri Lanka’s indigenous languages. Tamil literature was fostered by the support of the Jaffna kings and was enriched by constant contact with south India, yet it developed an individuality in idiom and speech and acquired some linguistic characteristics that distinguished it from its south Indian parent.

The Portuguese in Sri Lanka (1505–1658)

The expansion of Portuguese control

By about 1500 trade in the Indian Ocean was dominated by Arab, Indian, Malay, and Chinese merchants, who together used various seafaring craft to transport a spectrum of cargo, from spices to elephants. In the early 16th century a new force, in the form of Portuguese ships with mounted guns, arrived in the ocean. These vessels, with their firepower and capacity for high speeds, helped implement a policy of control that began to undermine the region’s long-standing, relatively open trade competition.

In 1505 a Portuguese fleet commanded by Lourenço de Almeida was blown into Colombo by adverse winds. Almeida received a friendly audience from the king of Kotte, Vira Parakrama Bahu, and was favourably impressed with the commercial and strategic value of the island. The Portuguese soon returned and established a regular and formal contact with Kotte. In 1518 they were permitted to build a fort at Colombo and were given trading concessions.

In 1521 three sons of Vijayabahu, the reigning king of Kotte, put their father to death and partitioned the kingdom among themselves. The eldest of the brothers, Bhuvanaika Bahu, ruled at Kotte, and the two others set up independent kingdoms at Sitawake and Rayigama. Mayadunne, the king of Sitawake, was an ambitious and able ruler who sought to expand his frontiers at the expense of his brother at Kotte. Bhuvanaika Bahu could not resist the temptation of seeking Portuguese assistance, and the Portuguese were eager to help him. The more he was pressed by Mayadunne, the greater was his reliance on Portuguese reinforcement. Bhuvanaika Bahu defended his kingdom against Mayadunne, who in turn allied himself with an inveterate enemy of the Europeans, the zamorin (member of the Zamorin dynasty) of Kozhikode (also known as Calicut, in southwestern India).

Bhuvanaika Bahu was succeeded by his grandson Prince Dharmapala, who was even more dependent on Portuguese support. An agreement between Bhuvanaika Bahu and the king of Portugal in 1543 had guaranteed the protection of the prince on the throne and the defense of the kingdom; in return the Portuguese were to be confirmed in all their privileges and were to receive a tribute of cinnamon. The prince was educated by members of the Franciscan order of the Roman Catholic Church; in 1556 or 1557, when his conversion to Christianity was announced, he became easily controlled by the Portuguese. Dharmapala’s conversion undermined the Kotte dynasty in the eyes of the people. Mayadunne’s wars of aggression were now transformed into a struggle against Portuguese influence and interests in the island, and he annexed a large part of the Kotte kingdom. After Mayadunne’s death, his son Rajasinha continued these wars successfully on land, though, like his father, he had no way of combating Portuguese sea power.

At the death of Rajasinha in 1593, the Sitawake kingdom disintegrated for want of a strong successor. The Portuguese captured much of the land of the Kotte royal lineage and emerged as a strong power on the island. In 1580 Dharmapala had been persuaded to deed his kingdom to the Portuguese, and when he died in 1597 they took formal possession of it. Meanwhile, a Portuguese expedition to Jaffna in 1560 had no lasting success. A second invasion of 1591, undertaken at the instigation of Christian missionaries, succeeded in installing a Portuguese protégé. Continued unrest and succession disputes prompted the Portuguese to undertake a third expedition, and the kingdom of Jaffna was annexed in 1619.

The Portuguese now controlled a considerable part of the island, except the Central Highlands and eastern coast, where an able Sinhalese nobleman, Vimala Dharma Surya, had established himself and consolidated his authority. The Portuguese were eager to establish hegemony over the entire island, and their attempts to do so led to protracted warfare. The Portuguese expanded to the lower reaches of the Central Highlands and annexed the east coast ports of Trincomalee and Batticaloa.

Although Portuguese possessions in Sri Lanka became a part of the Portuguese Estado da India (State of India), the administrative structure of the Kotte kingdom was retained. The island was divided into four dissavanis, or provinces, each headed by a dissava. Other territorial subdivisions also were retained. Portuguese held the highest offices, though local officials came from the Sinhalese nobility loyal to the Portuguese.

The Sinhalese system of service tenure was maintained, and it was used extensively to secure the essential produce of the land, such as cinnamon and elephants. The caste system remained intact, and all obligations that had been due to the sovereign now accrued to the Portuguese state. The payment in land to officials also was continued and was extended to Portuguese officials as well.

The Portuguese generally lacked a proper understanding of traditional Sinhalese social and economic structure, and excessive demands put upon it led to hardship and popular hostility. Cinnamon and elephants became articles of Portuguese monopoly; they provided good profits, as did the trade in pepper and betel nuts (areca nuts). Portuguese officials compiled a tombo, or land register, to provide a detailed statement of landholding, crops grown, tax obligations, and nature of ownership.

The period of Portuguese influence was marked by intense Roman Catholic missionary activity. Franciscans established centres in the country from 1543 onward. Jesuits were active in the north. Toward the end of the century, Dominicans and Augustinians arrived. With the conversion of Dharmapala, many members of the Sinhalese nobility followed suit. Dharmapala endowed missionary orders lavishly, often from the properties of Buddhist and Hindu temples. After the Portuguese secured control of Sri Lanka, they used their extensive powers of patronage and preference in appointments to promote Christianity. Members of the landed aristocracy embraced Christianity and took Portuguese surnames at baptism. Many coastal communities underwent mass conversion, particularly Jaffna, Mannar, and the fishing communities north of Colombo. Catholic churches with schools attached to them served Catholic communities all over the country. The Portuguese language spread extensively, and the upper classes quickly gained proficiency in it.

Kandy and its struggle with European powers

Rajasinha occupied Kandy, a Sinhalese kingdom in the Central Highlands, about 1580, and its ruler took refuge with the Portuguese. In 1591 the Portuguese launched an expedition to Kandy to enthrone Dom Philip, an heir of the dispossessed ruler. They were accompanied by an ambitious and distinguished Sinhalese military nobleman, Konnappu Bandara. Dom Philip was installed as king but died under suspicious circumstances, and Konnappu Bandara enthroned himself, proclaiming independence from the Portuguese and taking the regnal name of Vimala Dharma Surya. The demise of Sitawake after Rajasinha’s death left Kandy the only independent Sinhalese kingdom.

The Portuguese launched another expedition to Kandy, in 1594, under Gen. Pedro Lopes de Sousa, planning to enthrone Dona Catherina, a baptized Sinhalese noblewoman. Popular hostility soon built up toward the seemingly ever-present Portuguese troops. Vimala Dharma Surya took advantage of the agitated atmosphere and, making use of guerrilla warfare tactics, routed the Portuguese army in 1594. He captured Dona Catherina, made her his queen, and legitimized and consolidated his rule. He expanded into the old Sitawake kingdom and emerged as the leader of resistance to the Portuguese. The Portuguese made a few subsequent attempts to subjugate Kandy, but none were successful.

Vimala Dharma Surya realized that without sea power he could not drive the Portuguese out of Sri Lanka. He saw the arrival of the Dutch as an excellent opportunity to gain naval support against his adversaries. The first Dutch envoy, Joris van Spilbergen, met the king in July 1602 and made lavish promises of military assistance. A few months later another Dutch official, Sebald de Weert, arrived with a concrete offer of help and, in view of favourable terms offered by the king, decided to launch a joint attack on the Portuguese. However, a misunderstanding between the king and de Weert caused an altercation between the Kandyans and the Dutch, and de Weert and his men were killed.

King Senarath (Senarat) succeeded to the Kandyan throne in 1604 and continued to solicit Dutch support. In 1612 a Dutch envoy, Marcelis Boschouwer, concluded a treaty with Senarath. The king granted the Dutch extensive commercial concessions and a harbour for settlement on the east coast in return for a promise of armed assistance against Portuguese attack. The Dutch ultimately were unable to offer adequate assistance, and so Senarath turned to the Danes. By the time a Danish expedition arrived in May 1620, however, Senarath had concluded a peace agreement with the Portuguese. The truce was short-lived, and in 1630 the Kandyans, taking the offensive, invaded Portuguese territory and laid siege to Colombo and Galle. Again the absence of sea power proved a handicap, and another peace was concluded in 1634.

In 1635 Senarath was succeeded by his son Rajasinha II. The Dutch were now firmly established in Batavia (now Jakarta) in Java and were developing their trade in southern Asia. The king sent emissaries to meet the admiral of the Dutch fleet, Adam Westerwolt, who was then blockading Goa, India. The fleet came to Sri Lanka and captured Batticaloa. Westerwolt and Rajasinha II concluded a treaty on May 23, 1638, giving the Dutch a monopoly on most of Sri Lanka’s cinnamon and a repayment in merchandise for expenses incurred in assisting the king. In May 1639 the Dutch fleet captured Trincomalee, and in February 1640 the Dutch and the Kandyans combined to take Negombo. But differences arose over the occupation of captured forts. The Dutch refused to give Trincomalee and Batticaloa to the king until their expenses were paid in full, and Rajasinha II realized that what the Dutch really wanted was to replace the Portuguese as the rulers of the coast.

Rajasinha II nevertheless continued to work with the Dutch to expel the Portuguese. In March 1640 Galle was taken, but the progress of the allies soon was temporarily halted by a truce declared in Europe between the Dutch Republic and Spain, which at that time ruled Portugal and its overseas possessions. In 1645 the boundaries between Portuguese and Dutch territory in Sri Lanka were demarcated. Jan Thijssen was appointed the first Dutch governor.

The Dutch peace with the Portuguese and occupation of captured territory incensed the Kandyan king and strained relations between him and the Dutch. In May 1645 war broke out between them. Though Rajasinha II could not conquer the occupied lands, he made them worthless to the Dutch by destroying crops and depopulating villages. The Dutch then realized the advantage of coming to terms with the king. In 1649 a revised treaty was signed. The Dutch agreed to hand over some of the lands but again delayed it because of the immense debt the king was held to owe them.

The Dutch truce with the Portuguese expired in 1652, leaving the Dutch free to resume the war. Kandyans launched attacks on Portuguese positions in the interior provinces of Seven Korales, Four Korales, and Sabaragamuwa and pushed the Portuguese back to their coastal strongholds, despite fierce resistance. Rajasinha II was anxious to attack Colombo, but he was put off by the Dutch. He tried to secure guarantees from them for the return of that city after its conquest, and the Dutch made lavish promises. In August 1655 the Dutch were strengthened by the arrival of a large fleet under Gen. Gerard Hulft, and they laid siege to Colombo by sea and by land. In May 1656 the Portuguese surrendered the city to the Dutch, who shut the Kandyans out of its gates. Requests for the cession of Colombo met with evasive replies. Highly incensed, Rajasinha II destroyed the lands around Colombo, removed its inhabitants, and withdrew to his mountain kingdom.

After a brief respite the Dutch resumed the expulsion of the Portuguese from Sri Lanka. Adm. Ryckloff van Goens arrived with a fleet to continue the attack on Portuguese strongholds in northern Sri Lanka. The Dutch took Mannar in February 1658 and Jaffna in June. They had replaced the Portuguese as masters of coastal Sri Lanka.

Dutch rule in Sri Lanka (1658–1796)

Dutch rule in Sri Lanka was implemented though the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-indische Compagnie; commonly called VOC), a trading company established in 1602 primarily to protect Dutch trade interests in the Indian Ocean. Although the VOC first controlled only the coastal lands, the Dutch gradually pushed inland, occupying considerable territory in southern, southwestern, and western Sri Lanka. In 1665 they expanded to the east coast and thus controlled most of the cinnamon-growing lands and the points of exit and entry on the island.

Government

The Dutch governor, residing in Colombo, was the chief executive; he was assisted by a council of the highest officials. The country was divided into three administrative divisions (named after their principal cities): Colombo, Galle, and Jaffna. Colombo was ruled by the governor, Galle and Jaffna by commanders. The three divisions were subdivided into dissavanis (provinces) and, further, into korales (districts) in the traditional manner. The ruler of each dissavani was invariably a Dutch officer; subordinate offices were held by Sinhalese or Tamils loyal to the Dutch.

Economy

The period of Dutch rule was of great significance to Sri Lanka’s economic development. It was during this time that decisive steps were taken toward the incorporation of the island into the emerging world economy. Rain-fed commercial crops such as cinnamon and betel had become important items in the export trade, as had high-value gemstones from mines in the Central Highlands and pearls from fisheries on the northwestern coast. Because the processing of cinnamon demanded a moderately skilled labour force, many workers were recruited from the neighbouring subcontinent. Miners were drawn from the local population, but a good number of divers came from south India to participate in pearl-collecting operations. Exports also included other spices, lacquer, coconut oil, ropes of coconut fibres, and such sea products as cowrie and conch shells. Elephants were among the most important items of trade during this period; there was consistently a high demand, especially in Golconda in south India and Bengal in the northeast, where elephants were valued as war vehicles.

The link between trade and agriculture, which strengthened considerably during this period, was evident especially in the increased production of two new cash crops, tobacco and coffee—the cultivation of which was encouraged by the VOC. Tobacco, which thrived in the Jaffna Peninsula, found good markets in the kingdom of Travancore in south India as well as in Southeast Asia, especially at the port of Aceh (Acheh) in northern Sumatra and at various ports in the southern Malay Peninsula. Production of coffee, grown extensively across Sri Lanka, rose sharply in the first half of the 18th century; the island’s coffee found markets in Europe, the Middle East, and the neighbouring subcontinent.

The Dutch continued the Portuguese policy of respecting the traditional land structure and service relationship but used it more methodically to enhance revenue. Taxes in kind collected for the state were used in trade. Remuneration of Sinhalese officials in land and obligatory services to the state were continued. The Sinhalese nobility also was retained because the Dutch depended on the rural nobility for knowledge of the system.

Although the Dutch tried to promote trade with neighbouring countries, it was under a strictly controlled system. They sought to monopolize the export of major commodities, but this effort led to a decline in trade with India, which, in turn, resulted in a shortage of essential goods, such as rice and textiles. In the early 18th century some relaxation occurred, and private traders from India were admitted into the island’s trade system. Nevertheless, the Dutch retained their export monopolies in some areas, and they continued to control trade commodities and prices through a system of passes and inspection.

The expansion of Sri Lanka’s trade called for the development of a more extensive infrastructure and more-sophisticated transport facilities. The VOC developed three major canal systems in the western, southern, and eastern parts of the island. The western system, which linked the city of Colombo with Kalpitiya to its north and Bentota to its south, was the most complex. Somewhat less complex was the eastern system, which linked the commercial centre of Batticaloa with the Vanderloos Bay to the north and the minor port of Sammanturai to the south. The least intricate of the systems was in the south, where canals linked the city of Matara with the township of Valigama. While the three canal systems attested to the technological achievement of the hydraulic engineers of the VOC, a chain of solidly built and well-equipped forts displayed a matching level of accomplishment among the VOC’s military engineers.

The use of cannons, as well as guns and other smaller firearms, was introduced by the Portuguese and spread rapidly once the rulers of local kingdoms grasped the significance of the new technology. Guns enabled the centralization of storage and control of commodities and thus represented a strategic resource by which to boost the power of the rulers. The new military technology also created a demand for specialists, who were recruited from among the Europeans; under the direction of such specialists, the island’s metalworkers developed a capacity for the production of high-quality guns.

Law

The Dutch judicial system was well organized. There were three major courts of justice, in Colombo, Galle, and Jaffna; appeals were heard by the Colombo court. In the various districts, the provincial head (the dissava) presided over the circuit court, called the Land Raad. Native chiefs were invited to hear cases involving local custom. The customary law of the land was administered in the courts, unless it clashed violently with Dutch jurisprudence.

Increasingly in the 18th century, Roman-Dutch law was used in the Sinhalese areas of the southwest and south. This had important social consequences. Private property rights in land spread more widely in these areas, and property transfers were subject to Roman-Dutch law. Moreover, where Sinhalese society had been polygynous to some degree, a gradual shift toward monogamy occurred under the influence of the new legal system.

Some attempt was made to codify customary law. The Thesawalamai—laws and customs of the Tamils of Jaffna—was codified in 1707. Because of the difficulty in codifying Sinhalese law and custom in view of its regional diversity and complexity, Roman-Dutch law was increasingly applied to the Sinhalese of the cities and the seacoast, especially to those who professed Christianity.

Religion

The Netherlands was ardently Protestant—specifically, Calvinist—and in the early years of Dutch rule an enthusiastic effort was made to curtail the missionary activities of the Roman Catholic clergy and to spread the Reformed church in Sri Lanka. Roman Catholicism was declared illegal, and its priests were banned from the country; Catholic churches were given to the Reformed faith, with Calvinist pastors appointed to lead the congregations. Despite persecution, many Catholics remained loyal to their faith; some nominally embraced Protestantism, while others settled within the independent Kandyan kingdom. In their evangelical activities the Protestant clergy were better organized than their Catholic counterparts; in particular they used schools to propagate their faith.

During the period of Dutch rule in the coastal areas there was a revival of Buddhism in the Kandyan kingdom and in the southern part of the island. While the Dutch felt great antipathy toward Catholicism, they indirectly contributed to the revival of Buddhism by facilitating transport for Buddhist monks between Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the Arakan (Rakhine) region in southwestern Myanmar (Burma). Such services helped the Dutch maintain good relations with the king of Kandy.

Representing a new strand in the traditions of both Sinhalese and Tamil literature, Christian writings began to appear during the Dutch period. Although most of these new works were translations of basic canonical texts, some were polemics that targeted both Buddhism and Hinduism. The 18th-century writer Jacome Gonƈalves was among the most notable figures in Sri Lankan Christian literature. The VOC’s establishment in 1734 of the first printing press in Sri Lanka—used to meet the needs of missionaries as well as administrators—aided the proliferation of Christian texts.

British Ceylon (1796–1900)

The British East India Company’s conquest of Sri Lanka, which the British called Ceylon, occurred during the wars of the French Revolution (1792–1801). When the Netherlands came under French control, the British began to move into Sri Lanka from India. The Dutch, after a halfhearted resistance, surrendered the island in 1796. The British had thought the conquest temporary and administered the island from Madras (Chennai) in southern India. The war with France revealed Sri Lanka’s strategic value, however, and the British consequently decided to make their hold on the island permanent. In 1802 Ceylon was made a crown colony, and, by the Treaty of Amiens with France, British possession of maritime Ceylon was confirmed.

Control of Kandy

Not long after their arrival in 1796, the British established contact with the king of Kandy and contracted to replace the Dutch as protectors of the kingdom. As they began to organize the administration, the British realized that the continuing independence of Kandy posed problems: the frontier with Kandy had to be guarded at much expense; trade with the highlands was hampered by customs posts and political insecurity; and land communications between west and east would be quicker if roads could be built through the centre of the island. The advantages of political unification were obvious to the British, but the Kandyans remained deeply suspicious of all foreigners.

The first attempt by the British to capture the kingdom, in 1803, ended in failure; the king was popular with the nobility, who united behind him to rout the British forces. Subsequently, though, growing dissensions within the kingdom gave the British an opportunity to interfere in Kandyan affairs. With the help of local Kandyan chiefs whose relations with the king had been deteriorating, the British succeeded in taking over the kingdom in 1815. Soon after the acquisition the British guaranteed Kandyans their privileges and rights, as well as the preservation of customary laws, institutions, and religion. Initially, Kandy was administered separately, without any abrupt change from traditional patterns. However, the trend toward reducing the status of the nobility and of the Buddhist faith was unmistakable; this led to a popular rebellion against British control in 1818. After it was suppressed, the Kandyan provinces were integrated with the rest of the country.

Social and administrative reforms

Though reluctant to upset traditional Sinhalese institutions, the British quickly began a reform process. They abolished slavery, an institution that existed primarily as a consequence of unpaid debt (although in Jaffna, it was part of the caste system), relieved native officials of judicial authority, paid salaries in cash, and relaxed the system of compulsory service tenure. Agriculture was encouraged, and production of cinnamon, pepper, sugarcane, cotton, and coffee flourished. Internal communications were extended. Restrictions on European ownership of land were lifted, and Christian missionary activity became intensive.

The early changes under British rule were systematized by a series of reforms enacted in 1833, which laid the foundation for the subsequent political and economic structure of Ceylon. Steps were taken to adopt a unitary administrative and judicial system for the whole island. The reforms reduced the autocratic powers of the governor and set up Executive and Legislative councils to share in the task of government; unofficial members (not officials of the government) were gradually appointed to the Legislative Council. English became the language of government and the medium of instruction in schools.

Emergence of capitalist agriculture

The British eliminated restrictions on Ceylon’s economy by abolishing all state monopolies and eliminating compulsory labour service. They also promoted the liberation of the economy, which led to new economic enterprises. Land belonging to the British crown was sold cheaply to cultivators to encourage plantation agriculture, and the enterprise proved lucrative. Coffee plantations were particularly profitable.

From about 1830 through the mid-19th century coffee production spearheaded Ceylon’s economic development. Acreage under coffee cultivation expanded, and roads were constructed to fulfill the needs of coffee planters. Because of a labour shortage on the plantations, indentured workers came from southern India in large numbers beginning in the 1840s. In the 1870s, however, coffee was destroyed by a leaf disease. Experiments with tea as a plantation crop in the 1880s were immediately successful, and tea spread along the upper and lower slopes of the hill country. About the same time, rubber and coconuts also were cultivated as plantation crops.

Tea and rubber attracted extensive capital investment, and the growth of large-scale industries created a demand for a permanent workforce. Steps were taken to settle Indian labour on the plantations. Ancillary services soon arose in response to these developments. Increasing export trade led to the expansion of the harbour at Colombo and to railway and road construction. Opportunities were created for Ceylonese entrepreneurs, and for the English-educated, employment was readily available.

Capitalist enterprise introduced changes in agricultural practices and horticultural techniques, but these developments were essentially restricted to the urban areas and the plantation country. The rest of the country continued with subsistence farming, using traditional methods. However, roads and railways helped to reduce the isolation of the villages, and increased trade gradually pulled the rural population into the monetary economy.

Constitutionalism and nationalism (c. 1900–48)

By the end of the 19th century a nationalist sentiment had come to permeate the social, religious, and educational fronts of Ceylonese society. Meanwhile, revivalist movements in Buddhism and Hinduism sought to modernize their institutions and to defend themselves against Christian inroads by establishing schools to impart Western education unmixed with Christianity. This agitated atmosphere set the stage for social and political changes in the first half of the 20th century.

Constitutional reforms

Nationalist consciousness gradually spread to the political arena in the early 1900s. Regional and communal associations were founded within formally educated communities, and they began to voice proposals for reform. They asked for Ceylonese participation in the executive branch, a wider territorial representation in the legislature, and the adoption of the elective principle in place of nomination. These demands showed a common ideology and approach and revealed a desire to advance within the framework of the colonial constitution.

Because demands were neither coordinated nor vociferous, the imperial government generally ignored them, and constitutional reforms passed in 1910 retained the old structure, with an appointed executive and a legislature with an appointed majority. There was, however, a limited recognition of the elective principle; an “educated Ceylonese” electorate was established to elect one member to the Legislative Council. Other Ceylonese members were to be nominated on a communal basis.

Growth of nationalist power

During World War I (1914–18) the forces of nationalism in Ceylon gathered momentum, propelled largely by civil disturbances in 1915 and subsequent political repercussions. British arrests of prominent Sinhalese leaders during what was at first a minor communal riot provoked widespread opposition. Leaders of all communities, feeling the need for a common platform from which to voice a nationalist viewpoint, came together in 1919 to form the Ceylon National Congress, which united Sinhalese and Tamil organizations. In a series of proposals for constitutional reforms, the Congress called for an elected majority in the legislature, control of the budget, and partial control of the executive branch.

A new constitution was promulgated in 1920 under the governor Sir William Manning, and in 1924 it was modified to satisfy nationalist demands. The revised document provided for an elected majority in the legislature, an increase in the number of territorially elected members, and the election of communal representatives. Ceylon thus attained representative government. A finance committee of the legislature, consisting of three unofficial and three official members, also was formed; the committee had the authority to examine the budget. However, no major concessions were made in the executive branch, which remained under the British governor and the official Executive Council.

The allowance of greater power to the nationalists produced the first fissures among them. While Sinhalese leaders wanted to do away with communal representation and make territorial representation universal, minorities aimed to retain it to secure power for their own communities. Minorities broke away from the Congress to form their own organizations.

A new constitution, framed in 1931 on the recommendations of a commission appointed to examine constitutional reform, gave Ceylonese leaders opportunities to exercise political power and to gain governmental experience with a view toward eventual self-government. It provided for a State Council with both legislative and executive functions. In addition to being a legislative council with an overwhelming majority of territorially elected members, the State Council was divided for executive work into seven committees, each of which elected its own chairman. These chairmen, or ministers, formed a board of ministers to coordinate the activities of the council and to present an annual budget. The constitution, which remained in effect for more than 15 years, also granted universal suffrage, thus bringing all Ceylonese into the democratic political process.

Social and cultural changes

Economic development and the spread of education brought about changes in society, including changes in the relationships between social groups. Upper elements of the dominant castes solidified their positions by taking advantage of new developments. Castes traditionally of lower status also made use of these opportunities to move upward, creating tensions within the caste system. A community of capitalist entrepreneurs and professionals who were proficient in English emerged as a new class that transcended caste boundaries. Generally referred to as the “middle class,” this group produced the leaders of many political and social movements in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Social change since 1915 also included the intensification of interethnic rivalries. Although clashes in the early 20th century involved relatively small groups of people, these conflicts marked the beginning of a trend that was to grow progressively in scale and momentum. The growing distrust and mutual antipathy between ethnic groups was reflected in (and exacerbated by) the formation in 1936 of a board of ministers composed entirely of Sinhalese members of the State Council.

Dominion status

In response to Ceylonese nationalist leaders—who exerted pressure behind the scenes while cooperating with British efforts during World War II (1939–45)—the British in 1944 appointed the Soulbury Commission to develop a new constitution for Ceylon. The Soulbury constitution gave the colony internal self-government but retained some imperial safeguards in defense and external affairs. In 1947 the Ceylon Independence Act conferred dominion status on the colony, whereby Ceylon was recognized as an autonomous entity with allegiance to the British crown.

Ceylon held elections for the parliament outlined in its new constitution in August 1947, shortly after its acquisition of dominion status. The United National Party (UNP), a coalition of a number of nationalist and communal parties, won the majority; it chose Don Stephen Senanayake as prime minister and advocated orderly and conservative progress. The UNP was dominated by the English-educated leaders of the colonial era, who were familiar with the British type of parliamentary democracy that had been established on the island, and it included people from all the ethnolinguistic groups of Ceylon. Its members were bound by the common ideals of Ceylonese nationalism, parliamentary democracy, and gradual economic progress through free enterprise.

Independent Ceylon (1948–71)

Actual independence for the dominion of Ceylon came on February 4, 1948, when the constitution of 1947 went into effect. The constitution provided for a bicameral legislature with a popularly elected House of Representatives and a Senate that was partly nominated and partly elected indirectly by members of the House of Representatives. A prime minister and his cabinet, chosen from the largest political group in the legislature, held collective responsibility for executive functions. The governor-general, as head of state, represented the British monarch. In matters that the constitution failed to address, the conventions of the United Kingdom were observed.

The UNP had a substantial majority in the legislature and attracted support as it governed. There were, however, some basic weaknesses in the political structure. The consensus that the government represented embraced only a small fraction of the population—the English-educated Westernized elite groups that shared the values on which the structure was founded. To the great mass of Sinhalese- and Tamil-educated residents and unschooled citizens, these values appeared irrelevant and incomprehensible. The continued neglect of local culture as embodied in religion, language, and the arts created a gulf that divided the ruling elite from the ruled. Inevitably, traditionalist and revivalist movements arose to champion local values.

The island’s three export products—tea, rubber, and coconuts—were doing well in world markets, providing some 90 percent of foreign exchange earnings. Nevertheless, the country began to face economic difficulties. A rapidly increasing population and the free import of consumer goods swiftly ate into earnings from foreign trade. The falling price of Ceylon’s rubber and tea and the increase in the price of imported food added to the acute foreign exchange problem. Additionally, the expanded school system produced a large number of educated persons who could not find employment.

S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike

The various factors of political and economic discontent converged after 1955, and a new Sinhalese nationalism was unleashed. It found a spokesman in S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike. In the 1956 elections the UNP was defeated, and Bandaranaike’s Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) came to power. The new government immediately set about changing the political structure. With the Sinhala Only Bill, it made Sinhalese the sole official language, and it took measures to provide state support for Buddhism and for Sinhalese culture. It also wedded the new nationalism to a form of socialism, in which the state was given a powerful role in economic development and the creation of economic equality.

The period of Sinhalese nationalism was also a time of political instability. The language policy alienated the Tamils, who, under the Federal Party, carried on a bitter opposition. Educational policies angered the small but influential Christian community. Reforms of Buddhist and other cultural practices offended different factions within the Sinhalese community.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike

Bandaranaike was assassinated in September 1959, and the nationalist movement suffered a setback and languished for want of a leader. After a period of political instability, his widow, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, was persuaded to gather together the fragments of the SLFP. In 1960 she formed a government, thus becoming the first woman in the world to hold the office of prime minister. Continuing the program of Sinhalese nationalism, she implemented policies to nurture and protect local industry and to extend the state sector. Partly in response to pressure from the Buddhist community to reduce the prominence of Christian missions in the country’s educational system, most private schools were nationalized, and state subsidies to any remaining private schools were discontinued.

By 1965 the tide of Sinhalese nationalism had begun to recede. Language and religion had become less important as political issues. An economic crisis—caused by increasing unemployment, the rising cost of living, an acute shortage of consumer goods, and the failure of state enterprise in industry and trade—made people look back to the UNP. This party gained the support of minorities, and in 1965 it returned to power under Dudley Shelton Senanayake, who, as the son of Don Stephen Senanayake, had served as prime minister (1952–53) after his father’s death and briefly in 1960. Senanayake’s government enjoyed a five-year term of office, during which it encouraged private enterprise and made an effort to extend agricultural productivity. These measures, while having moderate success, also tended to create inflation and to increase social inequality. The SLFP formed an alliance with Marxist parties and waged a campaign against the government that called for increased state control of the economy. In 1970 this coalition won a landslide victory, and Sirimavo Bandaranaike again became prime minister.

The Bandaranaike government enacted reforms that restricted private enterprise and extended nationalization to embrace various private industries and foreign-owned plantations as well as a large part of the wholesale and distributive trade. Measures aimed at reducing social inequality were enacted, and an ambitious program of land reform was put into effect. Although these reforms benefited the vast majority of the underprivileged, they did nothing to address basic economic problems such as the mounting trade deficit. The educated youth, impatient for radical change, became disillusioned. Their discontent was mobilized by the People’s Liberation Front (Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna; JVP), a group of revolutionary youth who launched an unsuccessful armed rebellion in 1971.

The Republic of Sri Lanka

In a new constitution proclaimed in 1972, Ceylon became the Republic of Sri Lanka, while maintaining its link with the British Commonwealth. The constitution changed the bicameral legislature to a unicameral body and replaced the governor-general (who had been an extension of the British crown) with a president as head of state. Effective executive power, however, remained with the prime minister and cabinet, and all existing restraints on the lawmaking powers of the new unicameral legislature were removed. Buddhism was given “the foremost place,” and Sinhalese again was recognized as the official language.

As Sri Lanka’s economic decline continued, the immense economic power held by the state provided the party in power with the opportunity for patronage, nepotism, and corruption. By 1977 unemployment had risen to about 15 percent. In July of that year the SLFP was defeated by a reorganized UNP under the leadership of J.R. Jayawardene, who became prime minister.

The Jayawardene government sought to reverse trends toward state control of the economy by revitalizing the private sector and attracting foreign capital. It also set about writing a new constitution, promulgated in 1978, which renamed the country the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and introduced a system under which the president remained head of state but was given new executive power as head of government. Although Sinhalese and Tamil were recognized as the national languages, Sinhalese was to be the official language. In 1978 Jayawardene was elected the first president under the new constitution, and Ranasinghe Premadasa, also of the UNP, became prime minister.

Civil war

However, political unrest escalated in the 1980s as groups representing the Tamil minority moved toward organized insurgency. Tamil bases were built up in jungle areas of the northern and eastern parts of the island and increasingly in the southern districts of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, where Tamil groups received official and unofficial support. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)—popularly known as the Tamil Tigers—was the strongest of these, but there were other competing groups, which were sometimes hostile to each other.

The Sri Lankan government responded to the unrest by deploying forces to the north and the east, but the eruption of insurgency inflamed communal passions, and in July 1983 there were extensive organized anti-Tamil riots in Colombo and elsewhere. Sinhalese mobs systematically attacked Tamils and destroyed Tamil property, and the riots forced refugees to move within the island and from Sri Lanka to Tamil Nadu.

TIBAT

Culture of Tibet - Natural Hues of Colorful Lives Tibet has the richness and the depth of its traditions that is deep rooted in its cultural heritage. The wisdom, the knowledge about life, compassion, tolerance and peace of mind, all contribute in making the culture of Tibet. The simplicity of life, the spirituality of minds and rich customs and traditions give a strong hold to this alpine region which is entirely bedecked with its holy charisma. Comes and experience this magical world of culture.

Festivals

If possible, try to time your visit to Lhasa with one of the citys festivals. Pilgrims often flock to Lhasa at these times and the city takes on a colorful party atmosphere. The following Tibetan festivals are calculated according to the lunar calendar. Check before for the precise dates.

Tibetan New Year (March 3) This is the greatest festival in Tibet. In ancient times, when the peach trees were in blossom, it was considered the start of a new year. Since the systematization of the Tibetan calendar in 1027 AD, the first day of the first month was fixed as the New Year. On the New Years Day, families unite, an "auspicious dipper" is offered, and the auspicious words "tashi delek" are greeted.

Butter Oil Lantern Festival (March 18)

The last day of the Great Prayer Festival is celebrated as Butter oil lantern festival. In order to commemorate Sakyamunis victory over non-Buddhist opponents, the Lord of Neu Dzong, a noted patron of Tsongkapa, illuminated numerous butter-lamps in 1409.

Saga Dawa Festival (June 14)

Gods in heaven are believed to descend to the mortal world on this day. Incense sticks are lit in large numbers, and families go out in public parks for picnicking. The day is also known as the Worlds Incense Day.

Horse Racing Festival, Gyantse (20 to 27 July)

Horse race and archery are extremely popular in Tibet. And Gyantse enjoys the prestige of being the earliest in history by starting in 1408. Contests in early times included horse races, archery, and shooting on galloping horseback followed by a few days of entertainment and picnicking. Ball games, track and field events, folk songs and dances, and barter trade are additional attractions to the above.

Yalong Cultural Festival (July 25)

Yarlong culture is an important part not only of Tibetan culture but also of the worlds. The festival is a combination of both art and economy, which displays the old brilliance and the new expectations at the same time. There are colorful activities like national sports contests, singing, dancing, Tibetan opera, ethnic costume shows and trade fairs.

Shoton Festival (August 27, September 3)

The Opera Festival is one of the greatest festivals in Tibet. In ancient times, pious folks went into mountain hermitages to do penance. On the last day of the festival, yogurt is served as meal followed by folk song and dance entertainment.

Ganden Festival

On the 15th day of the 6th Tibetan month, 25 precious articles belonging to ganden monastery, which are normally locked in their treasure house, are displayed in the main shrine hall. A grand offering ceremony accompanies the display. These articles consist of the images of the sixteen arhats, akshobhya, the secret assembly, the four great kings, the upasaka and hashang image.

Harvest Festival (September)

The farmers in Lhasa, gyantse and shangnan to celebrating their bumeer harvest in this time. During that time, people enjoy with horse racing games, costume fashion show, songs and dance archery and picnic etc.

Tibetans are the main inhabitants on the plateau. Tibetans are happy people, they know how to enjoy their life in any circumstance. At present there are Tibetan, Menpa, Luopa, Han Chinese, hui, sherpa and a few Deng people living in Tibet while Tibetans are the main inhabitants on the plateau. Most Tibetans in cities fell to craftsmen. However, more and more people step into business nowadays. Traditionally farmers settled in small villages, mainly growing barley while the roaming nomads earned their living by herding yaks and sheep. Most Tibetans in cities fell to craftsmen. However, more and more people step into business nowadays. Tibetan language belongs to Sino-Tibetan phylum. People in U and Tsang, Kham and Chamdo speak different dialects. Most Tibetans are devout Buddhists while a few believe in the old Bon. Islam and Catholicism also have a few followers in Lhasa and Yanjing respectively. Since Chinas Family Planning program is not carried out among Tibetan people, Tibetan population keeps growing. According to the census conducted in 2000, there are 2,616,300 people in Tibet, with Tibetans totaling 2,411,100 and 92.2% of the current Tibet population. The statistic also shows that Tibetans average life reaches 68 due to the improving standard of living and medical service. The illiterate people are reduced to 850,700.

Languages

Tibetans have their own language, which is known as “bod-yig” in the Tibetan-inhabited areas with the meaning of “Tibetan language”. Tibetan language belongs to the Tibetan-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. According to geographical divisions, it has three major local dialects: Weizang, Kang and Amdo. The first two dialects have their own tones in pronunciation while the latter don’t. Created in the early 7th century, the Tibetan language, a phonetic system of writing, was based on the writing system of the ancient Sanskrit language of India. Tibetan language consists of thirty consonant, four vowels, five inverted letters (for the renting of foreign words) and the punctuations. Sentences are written from right to the left. With two major written scripts namely the regular script and the cursive hand, Tibetan language is widely used in all areas inhabited by Tibetans. In 641 AD, Songtsen Gampo, a king in southern Tibet, married Wen chen Konjo of the Tang dynasty, which gave a boost to the development of the Tibetan culture. From the 10th century to the 16th century, the Tibetan culture developed dramatically. Throughout the centuries, the Tibetans bring to us not only the two well-known Buddhist master pieces, the Bka-gyur, and the Bstan-gyur, but also other great works on cadences, literature, philosophy, history, geography, arithmetic, calendar, medicine and so on.

Bhutan

Religion of Bhutan - Traditional Beliefs and Practices in Bhutan's Culture

Buddha Dordenma, the Giant Buddha Statue in Thimphu, Bhutan (Source)

The predominant religion in Bhutan is Buddhism, followed by Hinduism. As a result, Bhutanese culture is very much influenced by sacred Buddhist values. Bhutanese live by their religious values and respect their gods and deities a lot. Hence, there is no dearth of monasteries, chortens, lhakhangs etc in the country. There are colourful prayer flags on hillsides, at the entrance of monasteries etc, which are considered sacred. The Dzong, a unique combination of a fortress and a monastery is present in every district or Dzongkhag of the country.

Dzongs are the administrative centres of each district (Source)

Buddhist monks reside in monasteries located high in the mountains. They lead a very simple life, with no luxuries. A monk is generally admitted in the monastery at the age of six to nine and takes his lessons under a headmaster. In common families, a small morsel is kept on the floor as an offering to deities before eating. So, religion plays a very important role in deciding the lifestyle of people.

2. Birth, Marriage and Death in Bhutan

Source

Culture of Bhutan is quite festive when it comes to the birth of a child. It is one of the very few countries in the world which does not discriminate between a boy and girl. However, no outsider is allowed to enter the house for 3 days after a baby is born. It is only after a purification ritual that the guests can enter. Name of the baby is kept by a local lama, and there is no family name as such. Instead, the name is a combination of two traditional names, and the gender is usually indicated by the second name.

The Royal Bhutanese Wedding of King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk and Queen Jetsum Pema (Source)

In Bhutan, marriage is not usually a big deal and hence, the wedding ceremony is kept simple. Marriage between cousins is very common. This has been going on for years, but the educated masses discourage it now. In some parts of Bhutan, it is the groom who goes to his wife's home, instead of the other way around.

Death of a person means passing on one life to another, i.e re-birth. Prayer flags are erected in the memory of the departed person and the relatives and neighbours come to attend the funeral and other rituals with simple eatables and souvenirs.

3. Festivals of Bhutan - Integral Part of Bhutan's Culture

Tshechu, a unique Bhutanese Festival celebrated across the Country (Source)

The festivals in Bhutan are an exciting affair in the life of the Bhutanese, and an integral part of the unique culture of Bhutan. The most important Bhutanese festival is tshechu. Every city has its own tshechu, which lasts for 3-5 days. It falls on a particular day of a Lunar month (for example, 10th day of 2nd Lunar month). It is generally held in a dzong, where people from the entire district and the surrounding places gather together in harmony to be a part of a mass celebration.

Masked dances or chham are the major attraction of a tshechu. Monks and laymen wear silk robes and animal masks and re-enact the moments of Guru Rinpoche's life in the form of dances. The last day of the tshechu usually witnesses the unfurling of a silk thongdrel. Seeing the thongdrel believes to wash away one's sins.

4. Traditional Dress of Bhutan - Cultural Aesthetics of the Country

Kira, the Traditional Dress for Women in Bhutan (Source)

Bhutanese culture mandates that the traditional dress be worn on special occasions and in government offices. Bhutanese men wear 'Gho' and women wear 'Kira'. Gho is a heavy knee-length robe, tied by a belt. Kira is an ankle-length dress, over which a short jacket may be worn. These dresses have evolved over time. For example, the small pouches on the front of the dress were used to carry food bowls and small daggers, whereas now mobile phones, etc are kept into it.

These dresses are made up of cotton or wool, and dresses made out of silk are worn on special occasions. As per traditions, it is necessary to carry a scarf in a dzong or an administrative centre. Men's scarf is called kabney and women's scarf is called rachu.

5. Food of Bhutan - Cuisine & Culinary Delights of Bhutan

Ema Datshi, the National Dish of Bhutan (Source)

One of the most quintessential things about the culture of Bhutan is its simplicity. Hence it does not come out as a surprise that its cuisine also reflects the same. Traditionally, food, cooked in earthenware, is eaten with hands, by sitting cross-legged on the floor. In cities, however, cutlery and dining table are used now and food is cooked in modern utensils. Usually, the woman of the family serves the food to other members, and the eldest member is the first one to be served.

Ema Datshi is the national dish of Bhutan. It is eaten throughout the country and in almost every meal. It usually consists of spicy chillies and cheese. Momos are yet another Bhutanese delicacy, and they are stuffed with pork, beef or cabbages.

6. Bhutanese Literature

In Bhutan, the primary focus has been on oral literature, as compared to written literature. For years, Bhutanese pass on their knowledge of religion, academics and culture to the younger generation through an oral medium.

In the written literature, however, a lot of it has been written in the Nepalese language. The reason for this is that before the 1960s, Nepalese was profusely spoken in the country.

7. Music and Dances of Bhutan - Celebrations of the Country's Legacy

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The music and dance forms of Bhutan, which are primarily inspired by religion, are part of every festivals and celebration in the country. In annual events such as, tshechus, king's birthday etc, the whole country celebrates their legacy by dancing and singing. Chham dances, or masked dances, are the national forms of dancing and they are majorly the re-enactment of the scenes from Guru Rinpoche's life.

During dancing, one person of the group plays a musical instrument called symbal, which keeps a track of time and adds melody to the performance. Joenpa Legso, Drametse Nga Cham, Pa Cham, etc are some of the most popular cham dances performed. Among royalty, Zhungdra is the most popular of all.

Monks playing the Dungchen, a Traditional Buddhist Horn (Source)

The music ranges from folk to religion to modern, such as rigsar. Rigsar has been prevalent in Bhutan since sometime around 1960s. Use of instruments, like lingm (six-holed flute), chiwang (two-stringed fiddle), dramnyen (a large rebec) etc. The lyrics are mostly in dzongkha or choke.

8. Art of Bhutan - Wall Paintings and Sculptures that depicts Bhutan's History

Traditional Art of Bhutan (Source)

Various art forms in Bhutan are inspired by the Buddhist religion. Poetry, dance, music, paintings and theatre in the country is deep-rooted in the religion. Paintings include thangkas, wall paintings and sculptures. Masked dances are the main speciality, which are the reenactment of Guru Rinpoche's life.

9. Bhutanese Architecture - An Intricate Part of its Culture

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Architecture is another feature which makes Bhutanese culture stand apart. In accordance with the country's geography and climate, the traditional architecture, which includes sloped roofs, earthen walls and intricate wooden work still thrive. Phalluses on the wall are considered sacred. No iron nail is used in the construction.

Bhutanese culture is one of the very few cultures in the world that is celebrated and a source of pride for each and every citizen. Each day sees its people respecting and embracing the unique culture in its true form, as well as working hard to preserve and promote the values set forth. Maybe this is why it leaves an impact on every individual who wanders through the country.

Nepal

he culture of Nepal is as diverse as the ethnic-lingual groups of people present in Nepal. These groups - some natives, some arrived from other countries, together create a vibrant and vivid culture of Nepal, which is similar in some aspects to the culture of its neighbouring areas like India and Tibet and with some unique and distinct features of its own.

Nepal's Unique Customs & Traditions

Janku celebration (Source)

Nepalis have their own customs and traditions each with its own significance. A lot of these are based on myths and superstitions, like belief in witches, ghosts and supernatural creatures and reliance on Tantriks and shamans. They also indulge in animal sacrifices in their religious procedures. Some communities in Nepal have weird marriage traditions like getting married to a wood-apple and the sun, some have to marry their first-cousin, some their sister-in-law, and some people can even marry another man's wife by paying a sum of money! It's called Jari Vivaha.

Another unique tradition is celebrating the birthdays of old people when they turn specific ages - 77, 1000 months, 88, 99 and 110 years. This one is called Janku. Some communities, especially those residing in the highlands, have an unusual way of bidding farewell with the dead known as sky burial. Instead of cremating or burying the bodies, it is left to be eaten by vultures and crows.

Festivals of Nepal

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The varied culture of Nepal is seen through its many festivals. Nepalis celebrate numerous festivals throughout the year, much like the Indians. Major festivals include Dashain (Nepali equivalent of Durga Puja) which marks the victory of Goddess Durga over the demon Mahishasura. It is one of the most anticipated festivals of the year and is celebrated by Nepali Hindus with great pomp and joy for fifteen days in the month of Ashvin (September-October). Tihar (Diwali), also called as Swanti and Yamapanchak by some communities, is another famous festival celebrated for five days. In addition to decorating the houses with lights, animals are also worshipped during this period.

Other popular festivals in Nepal:

Phagu Purnima (Holi)
Janai Purnima (Raksha Bandhan)
Mahashivratri
Krishna Janmashtami
Gaijatra, which is a procession of decorated cows to commemorate the dead and also involves mask dance, mockery and traditional dance - Ghinta Ghisi.
Buddha Jayanti
Indrajatra (a street festival involving mask dance, consumption of Nepali liquor - Raksi, worship of Akash Bhairab and young girls, all to pray for a good harvest in the upcoming year)

Nepali Dance and Music

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Nepal has a rich tradition of folk, as well as classical dances. According to Hindu mythology, Shiva, who is the God of dance in his Nataraja form, used to do his famous Tandava dance here in the Himalayas. Different communities have their own dance forms which are performed during various festivals, fairs and family occasions. Some folk dances include

Popular Dances of Nepal:

1. Dandi Naach which is a stick dance performed during Phagu Purnima

2. Dhan Naach which is performed by members of the Limbu community to celebrate the harvest of crops

3. Chandi Naach performed by the Rais during Udhauli and Ubhauli

4. Panchabuddha Nritya - a Buddhist dance that has to be performed by five people

5. Bhairab Nritya, where the dancer dances dressed as Bhairab

6. Khyali Naach

7. Gauna Nritya

8. Hanuman Nritya

9. Kaura Naach

10. Devi Nritya

Music is also an important element of Nepalese culture. It has been a source of manifestation of their emotions, telling of stories and also a form of entertainment. Just like dance, Nepalese music is also classified according to the community - the Tamangs, Gurungs, Sherpas, Maithilis, Newas, Kirats, Magars and Tharus each have their own distinct music and singers. Musical instruments like Madal, Dhimey, Panchai Baja and Sarangi often accompany the songs.

Art and Craft of Nepal

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If you visit a monastery in Nepal, you may find its walls adorned with beautiful and vibrant paintings. These are actually Thangka or Paubha paintings, depicting Hindu and Buddhist deities. Although traditionally they have been important elements of Nepal's culture, presently they are produced for the market as tourists love buying them as souvenirs. The handicrafts play a crucial part in the culture of Nepal as it defines the arts and crafts scene of the nation.

Handicrafts of Nepal:

These encompass a wide range of products including metalware, pottery, textiles, wood and stone crafts, paper products, goods made out of beads, bones, horns, leather, bamboo and so on. The list seems endless, implying that you will never fall short of products to buy when in Nepal! While some of these things like metal statues of Gods and Goddesses, religious items such as bells and vajra, wood carvings, lokta paper and silver ornaments are being made since the first civilisations began in the country, the rest are relatively newer items. Among textiles, Pashmina and garments made of yak wool are noteworthy. Nepali artisans and craftsmen have earned respect and admiration for their work from people all over the world.

Architecture of Nepal

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Nepalese architecture is characterised by two main styles - the tapering multi-storeyed pagoda style and the dome-shaped stupa style.

The Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu which attracts a multitude of tourists, is one of the oldest examples of pagoda style architectures in the world, being built in the 1st century AD. It is even believed that a Nepali architect named Araniko was the first to introduce the pagoda style architecture in China. Other examples of this style include the Basantpur Palace and Changu Narayan Temple. Fine examples of stupa-style architecture are the famous Boudhanath and Swayambhunath stupas. Some stupas can also be spotted in Patan, built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. The Shikhara style is another prominent style of architecture in the country - it includes a tall mountain peak-shaped tower containing stone or wood carvings. The Krishna Temple in Patan is an example of this style. In addition to these, the Newa style that originated from the Newaris and the Mughal style can also be observed occasionally.

Cuisine of Nepal

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Nepali cuisine is heavily influenced by Indian, Tibetan and Chinese cuisines. Dal-bhaat is the staple food of all Nepalis irrespective of ethnicity. While bhaat refers to simple boiled rice, dal is a lentil-based gravy. This is often accompanied by a vegetable curry termed tarkari. Other than this, there are some variations in the food consumed by different ethnic groups and also depending upon the region. Like for instance, people residing in the mountainous regions may substitute rice for other grains like wheat, maize, millets, cornmeal or barley.

Traditional Attire

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The traditional apparel worn by the Nepali people are the Daura-Suruwal for men and Gunyo-Cholo for women and constitute a major portion in the culture of Nepal. The Daura is a type of double-breasted kurta worn on the upper body and fastened with eight strings, while the Suruwal is the trouser. It is worn with a type of cap called Dhaka Topi and sometimes with a jacket or waistcoat too. Gunyo-Cholo consists of a cotton saree which is draped like a skirt on the lower body and worn with a blouse or Cholo and lots of traditional jewellery. When a Nepali girl turns seven, there is a tradition of gifting her this dress to mark her coming of age. This dress is reserved for marriages, festivals and other special occasions.

Religion in Nepal

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After officially being a Hindu kingdom for a long time, Nepal at present is a secular country giving equal importance to all religions and giving its citizens the freedom to practice the religion of their choice. Demographic data shows that the vast majority of Nepal's population is dominated by Hindus - a whopping 81.3% of the people follow the religion, followed by Buddhists who cover 9%, Muslims 4.4%, Kiratis (religion of some of the native Himalayan tribes) 3%, Christians 1.4% and the remaining 0.9% is composed of Jains, Sikhs, Baha'is, Jews and also some people who do not follow any religion. Places of worship for all the religions exist in the country, and all the religions celebrate their own festivals. Great harmony and bonding are said to exist between the Hindu and Buddhist communities in Nepal to the extent that they share places of worship and celebrate festivals together. Lumbini in Nepal is, in fact, the birthplace of Lord Buddha and hence a very holy place for both the Hindus and the Buddhists.

Language and Literature

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Although Nepali is the national and official language of Nepal, it is actually a multi-lingual nation with each ethnic group conversing in its own distinct tongue. As many as 123 languages are spoken in Nepal - the most spoken ones being Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tharu and Tamang. Nepali language is written in the Devanagari script and has actually evolved from the ancient Sanskrit language.

Literature began to develop only since the 19th century with some notable Nepalis like Laxmi Prasad Devkota, Bhanubhakta Acharya, Bal Krishna Sam, Motiram Bhatta, Parijat and many others making a remarkable contribution to Nepali literature. Lyrical poetry, tragic dramas and short stories are some common forms of Nepali literature, and they deal with themes like social issues faced by the people, patriotism and love stories.

Primary Occupation of the Nepali Natives

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Nepal is an agro-based economy implying that a majority of its population (around 70%) is engaged in agriculture and related work. Most of the farming takes place in the southern Terai plains and also in some of the lower hilly areas. Fruits and vegetables, cereals like rice, wheat and maize, and tea are the main crops cultivated. The remaining 30% of the people are employed in the service sector and industries. You can already predict that tourism is an important industry in the country, being a pilgrimage site for Buddhists and Hindus, and not to forget the trekkers and mountaineers. Apart from these, people are also employed in financial institutions, transport sector, construction sector, software sector in urban areas and engage in animal husbandry and fishery in rural areas.

That was all about the culture of Nepal. Despite having over a hundred different ethnic groups, there seems to be unity in diversity in the nation, thus truly making it a land of 'Never Ending Peace And Love'.

SECTION-3. THE 7 Mysterious of The World

Pyramids of Giza, Arabic Ahrāmāt Al-Jīzah, Giza also spelled Gizeh, three 4th-dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE) pyramids erected on a rocky plateau on the west bank of the Nile River near Al-Jīzah (Giza) in northern Egypt. In ancient times they were included among the Seven Wonders of the World. The ancient ruins of the Memphis area, including the Pyramids of Giza, Ṣaqqārah, Dahshūr, Abū Ruwaysh, and Abū Ṣīr, were collectively designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979.

Pyramids of Giza

pyramid of Khafre

pyramid of Menkaure

pyramid of Khafre: mortuary temple

The designations of the pyramids—Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure—correspond to the kings for whom they were built. The northernmost and oldest pyramid of the group was built for Khufu (Greek: Cheops), the second king of the 4th dynasty. Called the Great Pyramid, it is the largest of the three, the length of each side at the base averaging 755.75 feet (230 metres) and its original height being 481.4 feet (147 metres). The middle pyramid was built for Khafre (Greek: Chephren), the fourth of the eight kings of the 4th dynasty; the structure measures 707.75 feet (216 metres) on each side and was originally 471 feet (143 metres) high. The southernmost and last pyramid to be built was that of Menkaure (Greek: Mykerinus), the fifth king of the 4th dynasty; each side measures 356.5 feet (109 metres), and the structure’s completed height was 218 feet (66 metres). All three pyramids were plundered both internally and externally in ancient and medieval times. Thus, the grave goods originally deposited in the burial chambers are missing, and the pyramids no longer reach their original heights because they have been almost entirely stripped of their outer casings of smooth white limestone; the Great Pyramid, for example, is now only 451.4 feet (138 metres) high. That of Khafre retains the outer limestone casing only at its topmost portion. Constructed near each pyramid was a mortuary temple, which was linked via a sloping causeway to a valley temple on the edge of the Nile floodplain. Also nearby were subsidiary pyramids used for the burials of other members of the royal family.

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pyramid of Khufu

Khufu’s pyramid is perhaps the most colossal single building ever erected on the planet. Its sides rise at an angle of 51°52′ and are accurately oriented to the four cardinal points of the compass. The Great Pyramid’s core is made of yellowish limestone blocks, the outer casing (now almost completely gone) and the inner passages are of finer light-coloured limestone, and the interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone were cut, transported, and assembled to create the 5.75-million-ton structure, which is a masterpiece of technical skill and engineering ability. The internal walls as well as those few outer-casing stones that still remain in place show finer joints than any other masonry constructed in ancient Egypt.

Great Pyramid of Khufu: cross section of interior

Discover the inner structure of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, one of the Pyramids of GizaSee all videos for this article

The entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north side, about 59 feet (18 metres) above ground level. A sloping corridor descends from it through the pyramid’s interior masonry, penetrates the rocky soil on which the structure rests, and ends in an unfinished underground chamber. From the descending corridor branches an ascending passageway that leads to a room known as the Queen’s Chamber and to a great slanting gallery that is 151 feet (46 metres) long. At the upper end of this gallery, a long and narrow passage gives access to the burial room proper, usually termed the King’s Chamber. This room is entirely lined and roofed with granite. From the chamber two narrow shafts run obliquely through the masonry to the exterior of the pyramid; it is not known whether they were designed for a religious purpose or were meant for ventilation. Above the King’s Chamber are five compartments separated by massive horizontal granite slabs; the likely purpose of these slabs was to shield the ceiling of the burial chamber by diverting the immense thrust exerted by the overlying masses of masonry.

The question of how the pyramids were built has not received a wholly satisfactory answer. The most plausible one is that the Egyptians employed a sloping and encircling embankment of brick, earth, and sand, which was increased in height and in length as the pyramid rose; stone blocks were hauled up the ramp by means of sledges, rollers, and levers. According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid took 20 years to construct and demanded the labour of 100,000 men. This figure is believable given the assumption that these men, who were agricultural labourers, worked on the pyramids only (or primarily) while there was little work to be done in the fields—i.e., when the Nile River was in flood. By the late 20th century, however, archaeologists found evidence that a more limited workforce may have occupied the site on a permanent rather than a seasonal basis. It was suggested that as few as 20,000 workers, with accompanying support personnel (bakers, physicians, priests, etc.), would have been adequate for the task.

Great Sphinx and pyramid of Khafre

Great Sphinx

Great Sphinx and pyramid of Khafre

Uncover the myths and mysteries behind the Great Sphinx's damaged faceSee all videos for this article

To the south of the Great Pyramid near Khafre’s valley temple lies the Great Sphinx. Carved out of limestone, the Sphinx has the facial features of a man but the body of a recumbent lion; it is approximately 240 feet (73 metres) long and 66 feet (20 metres) high. (See sphinx.)

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In 1925 a pit tomb containing the transferred burial equipment of Khufu’s mother, Queen Hetepheres, was discovered near the upper end of the causeway of Khufu. At the bottom of a deep stone-filled shaft was found the queen’s empty sarcophagus, surrounded by furniture and articles of jewelry attesting to the high artistic ability and technical perfection of the 4th-dynasty craftsmen.

Surrounding the three pyramids are extensive fields of flat-topped funerary structures called mastabas; arranged in a grid pattern, the mastabas were used for the burials of relatives or officials of the kings. Besides the core mastabas of the 4th dynasty, numerous mastabas from the 5th and 6th dynasties (c. 2465–c. 2150 BCE) have been found around and among the earlier structures.

Pyramids of Giza

No, enslaved people didn't build the Pyramids of GizaSee all videos for this article

Travel down the Nile to discover important ancient Egyptian cultural sites such as the Pyramids of GizaSee all videos for this article

In the late 1980s and ’90s, excavations in the environs of the pyramids revealed labourers’ districts that included bakeries, storage areas, workshops, and the small tombs of workers and artisans. Mud sealings seem to date the workshop areas to the late 4th dynasty. The tombs range from simple mud-brick domes to more-elaborate stone monuments. Statuettes were found within some of the structures; hieroglyphic inscriptions on tomb walls occasionally identify the deceased.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, ancient gardens considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World and thought to have been located near the royal palace in Babylon. By the beginning of the 21st century, the site of the Hanging Gardens had not yet been conclusively established. Nevertheless, many theories persisted regarding the structure and location of the gardens. Some researchers proposed that these were rooftop gardens. Another theory, popularized by the writings of British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley, suggested that the gardens were built within the walls of the royal palace at Babylon, the capital of Babylonia (now in southern Iraq), and did not actually “hang” but were instead “up in the air”; that is, they were roof gardens laid out on a series of ziggurat terraces that were irrigated by pumps from the Euphrates River. Traditionally, they were thought to be the work either of the semilegendary queen Sammu-ramat (Greek Semiramis, mother of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III, who reigned from 810 to 783 BCE) or of King Nebuchadrezzar II (reigned c. 605–c. 561 BCE), who built them to console his Median wife, Amytis, because she missed the mountains and greenery of her homeland.

The Hanging Gardens were described in detail by a number of Classical authors. Though some sources disagreed on who built them, a number of descriptions concurred that the gardens were located near the royal palace and were set upon vaulted terraces. They were also described as having been watered by an exceptional system of irrigation and roofed with stone balconies on which were layered various materials, such as reeds, bitumen, and lead, so that the irrigation water would not seep through the terraces. Although no certain traces of the Hanging Gardens have been found, a German archaeologist, Robert Koldewey, did uncover an unusual series of foundation chambers and vaults in the northeastern corner of the palace at Babylon. A well in one of the vaults may have been used in conjunction with a chain pump and thus was thought perhaps to be part of the substructure of the once towering Hanging Gardens.

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Research in the late 20th and early 21st centuries suggested that popular theories holding that the Hanging Gardens had once thrived in Babylon atop a rooftop or terraced ziggurat were perhaps misconceptions. Instead, a later theory postulated that, owing to confusion among Classical sources, the Hanging Gardens might well have been those constructed by Sennacherib (705/704–681 BCE) at Nineveh. This research suggested that the gardens were laid out on a sloping construct designed to imitate a natural mountain landscape and were watered by a novel system of irrigation, perhaps making early use of what would eventually be known as the Archimedes screw.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia is one of the classical Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was carved by the famed sculptor Phidias around 435 B.C.E. in Olympia, Greece.

The seated statue occupied the whole width of the aisle of the temple that was built to house it, and was 40 feet high. "It seems that if Zeus were to stand up," the geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century B.C.E., "he would unroof the temple."[1] The statue was made of ivory and accented with gold plating. In the sculpture, Zeus was seated on a magnificent throne of cedar wood, inlaid with ivory, gold, ebony, and precious stones. In Zeus's right hand was a small statue of Nike, the goddess of victory, and in his left hand, a shining scepter on which an eagle perched.

Plutarch, in his Life of the Roman general Aemilius Paulus, records that the victorious general, upon seeing the statue, “was moved to his soul, as if he had beheld the god in person,” while the Greek rhetorician and philosopher Dio Chrysostom wrote that a single glimpse of the statue would make a man forget his earthly troubles.

Although the statue itself is lost, in 1958 an excavation discovered the workshop used to create the statue. This has led archaeologists to attempt to re-create the technique used to make the great work.Temple of Zeus

The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was built between 470 B.C.E. and completed by 456 B.C.E. to commemorate the Elean defeat of the Pisatans in 470 B.C.E. It was designed by Lisbon of Elis at Archaeopaedia. Later, it housed the monumental Statue of Zeus, which was added to the temple around 435 B.C.E. The temple was destroyed by earthquake in the fifth century B.C.E.

The temple was built from limestone and covered with stucco built on a raised rectangular platform of approximately 210 feet by 92 feet, with 13 33-foot columns on each side and six at either end. The temple was divided into three sections.

Olympia

Olympia not only housed the Temple of Zeus, but also hosted the Olympic Games. Held every four years, the games dated back possibly further than 776 B.C.E. The games quickly gained importance throughout Ancient Greece, reaching their zenith in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. The Olympics were of fundamental religious importance, contests alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies. These rites honored both Zeus, who was said to be presiding over the games, and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of Olympia, famous for his legendary chariot race, in whose honor the games were held. The number of events increased to 20, and the celebration was spread over several days. The games were held every four years, and the period between two celebrations became known as an 'Olympiad.' In 394 C.E., the Christian emperor Theodosius I abolished the games because of their connection to paganism.

Ruins of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece

Olympia's sanctuary, known as the Altis, consisted of an unordered arrangement of various buildings. Enclosed within the temenos (sacred enclosed area) were the Temple of Hera, the Temple of Zeus, the Pelopion and the area of the altar, where sacrifices were offered. The hippodrome and later stadium stood to the east.

To the north of the sanctuary were the Prytaneion and the Philippeion, as well as the array of treasuries representing the various city states. The Metroon lies to the south of these treasuries, with the Echo Stoa to the East. To the south of the sanctuary are the South Stoa and the Bouleuterion, while the west side housed the Palaestra, the workshop of Pheidias, the Gymnasion and the Leonidaion.

King of the gods

Main article: Zeus

ASeated Zeus, after the pattern of the statue at Olympia (Hermitage Museum)

Zeus (in Greek: nominative: Ζεύς Zeús; genitive: Διός Diós), was the king of the gods, the ruler of Mount Olympus. In Greek mythology he was the bringer of thunder and lightning, rain, and winds. Zeus's symbols were the thunderbolt (his weapon), eagle, bull, and the oak. In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical Zeus also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the ancient Near East, such as the scepter.

Frequently envisaged by Greek artists in one of two poses, Zeus is most often seen standing, striding forward, a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or seated in majesty, as in the case of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.

Zeus was also protector of cities, the home, strangers, and supplicants. Statues of Zeus appeared in forecourts of houses all over Greece, while mountaintop shrines attracted scores of pilgrims. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia, located in a sacred grove between two rivers was the most revered object of Zeus' worship.

Destruction

The circumstances of the eventual destruction of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia are a source of debate: One theory suggests it was destroyed by a meteor. Others argue that it perished with the temple in the fifth century B.C.E. Still others believe that it was carried off to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in the great fire of the Lauseion.

The idea of its being stolen is supported by Lucian of Samosata in the later second century CE:

They have laid hands on your person at Olympia, my lord High-Thunderer, and you had not the energy to wake the dogs or call in the neighbors; surely they might have come to the rescue and caught the fellows before they had finished packing up the swag. [2]

Footnotes

↑ Ashmawy, Alaa K. The Seven Wonders: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia. University of South Florida. Retrieved on June 14, 2007.
↑ Lucian's dialogue Timon the Misanthrope Online Reader Works of of Samatosa — Volume 01 by Lucian of Samatosa. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved June 14, 2007.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Bernard and Yalouris. Olympia: The Sculptures of the Temples of Zeus. Phaidon, 1967. ASIN B000NKQ3NU
Dillon, Matthew. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 978-0415127752
Nardo, Don. Greek Temples. Franklin Watts, 2002. ISBN 978-0531162255
Pedley, John. Sanctuaries and the Sacred in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0521809351

The Temple of Artemis (in Greek — Artemision, and in Latin — Artemisium), also known as Temple of Diana, was a temple dedicated to Artemis completed around 550 BC at Ephesus (in present-day Turkey) under the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire. Nothing remains of the original temple, which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The temple was a 120-year project started by Croesus of Lydia. It was described by Antipater of Sidon, who compiled a list of the Seven Wonders:

I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, 'Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught (anything) so grand." (Antipater, Greek Anthology [IX.58])

The temple was also described by Philo of Byzantium:

I have seen the walls and Hanging Gardens of ancient Babylon, the statue of Olympian Zeus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the mighty work of the high Pyramids and the tomb of Mausolus. But when I saw the temple at Ephesus rising to the clouds, all these other wonders were put in the shade.

Location

The Temple of Artemis was located in the ancient city of Ephesus, about 50 km south from the modern port city of Izmir, in Turkey. Like the other wonders, Antipater chose the temple for his list not only because of its beauty or size, but also because it rested near the border of the Greek world. This inspired a sense of mystery and awe for the Greeks, and emphasized Alexander the Great's vast empire.

Artemis of Ephesus: an 18th-century engraving of a Roman marble copy of a Greek original

Ephesian Artemis

Artemis was the Greek goddess, the virginal huntress and twin of Apollo, who supplanted the Titan Selene as Goddess of the Moon. Of the Olympian goddesses who inherited aspects of the Great Goddess of Crete, Athene was more honored than Artemis at Athens. At Ephesus, a goddess whom the Greeks associated with Artemis was passionately venerated in an archaic, certainly pre-Hellenic icon. The original—of which many copies and reductions circulated in Antiquity— was carved of wood, with many breasts denoting her fertility (rather than the virginity that Hellene Artemis assumed). Most similar to Near-Eastern and Egyptian deities, and least like Greek ones, her body and legs are enclosed within a tapering pillar-like term, from which her feet protrude. On the coins minted at Ephesus, the many-breasted Goddess wears a mural crown (like a city's walls), an attribute of Cybele (see polos). On the coins she rests either arm on a staff formed of entwined serpents or of a stack of ouroboroi, the eternal serpent with its tail in its mouth. Like Cybele, the goddess at Ephesus was served by hierodules called megabyzae, and by ( korai).

A votive inscription mentioned by Bennett (see link), which dates probably from about the 3rd century BC, associates Ephesian Artemis with Crete: "To the Healer of diseases, to Apollo, Giver of Light to mortals, Eutyches has set up in votive offering (a statue of) the Cretan Lady of Ephesus, the Light-Bearer."

The Greek habits of syncretism assimilated all foreign gods under some form of the Olympian pantheon familiar to them, and it is clear that at Ephesus, the identification that the Ionian settlers made of the "Lady of Ephesus" with Artemis was slender.

History

The sacred site at Ephesus was far older than the Artemisium. Pausanias understood the shrine of Artemis there to be very ancient. He states with certainty that it antedated the Ionic immigration by many years, being older even than the oracular shrine of Apollo at Didyma. He said that the pre-Ionic inhabitants of the city were Leleges and Lydians.

The Temple was designed and constructed around 550 BC by the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes. This early construction was built at the expense of Croesus, the wealthy king of Lydia. The rich foundation deposit of more than a thousand items has been recovered: it includes what may be the earliest coins of the silver-gold alloy, electrum. Marshy ground was selected for the building site as a precaution against future earthquakes, according to Pliny the Elder. The temple became a tourist attraction, visited by merchants, kings, and sightseers, many of whom paid homage to Artemis in the form of jewelry and various goods. Its splendor also attracted many worshippers, many of whom formed the cult of Artemis.

The temple was a widely respected place of refuge, a tradition that was linked in myth with the Amazons who took refuge there, both from Heracles and from Dionysus.

The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was destroyed on July 21, 356 BC in an act of arson committed by Herostratus. According to the story, his motivation was fame at any cost, thus the term herostratic fame.

"A man was found to plan the burning of the temple of Ephesian Diana so that through the destruction of this most beautiful building his name might be spread through the whole world."

Source: Valerius Maximus, VIII.14.ext.5

The Ephesians, outraged, announced that Herostratus' name never be recorded. Strabo later noted the name, which is how we know today.

That very same night, Alexander the Great was born. Plutarch remarked that Artemis was too preoccupied with Alexander's delivery to save her burning temple. Alexander later offered to pay for the Temple's rebuilding, but the Ephesians refused. Eventually, the temple was restored after Alexander's death, in 323 BC.

This reconstruction was itself destroyed during a raid by the Goths in 262, in the time of emperor Gallienus: "Respa, Veduc and Thuruar, leaders of the Goths, took ship and sailed across the strait of the Hellespont to Asia. There they laid waste many populous cities and set fire to the renowned temple of Diana at Ephesus", reported Jordanes in Getica (xx.107).

Over the next two centuries, the majority of Ephesians converted to Christianity, and the Temple of Artemis lost its religious appeal. Christians tore down the remenants of the temple, and the stones were used in construction of other buildings.

The main primary sources for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus are in Pliny the Elder's Natural History XXXVI.xxi.95, Pomponius Mela i:17, and Plutarch's Life of Alexander III.5 (referencing the burning of the Artemisium).

The site of the temple was rediscovered in 1869 by an expedition sponsored by the British Museum led by John Turtle Wood, and while several artifacts and sculptures from the reconstructed temple can be seen there today, as for the original site, only a single column remains from the temple itself.

Architecture and art

Most of the physical description and art within the Temple of Artemis comes from Pliny, though there are different accounts and the actual size varies.

Pliny describes the temple as 377 feet (115 meters) long and 180 feet (55 meters) wide, made almost entirely of marble. The Temple consists of 127 Ionic-styled columns, each 60 feet (18 meters) in height.

The Temple of Artemis housed many fine artworks. Sculptures by renowned Greek sculptors Polyclitus, Pheidias, Cresilas, and Phradmon adorned the temple, as well as paintings and gilded columns of gold and silver. The sculptors often competed at creating the finest sculpture. Many of these sculptures were of Amazons, who are said to have founded the city of Ephesus.

Pliny tells us that Scopas, who also worked on the Mausoleum of Mausollos, worked carved reliefs into the temple's columns.

Athenagoras of Athens names Endoeus, a pupil of Daedalus, as the sculptor of the main statue of Artemis in Ephesus.

Cult and influence

The Temple of Artemis was located at an economically robust region, seeing merchants and travellers from all over Asia Minor. The temple was influenced by many beliefs, and can be seen as a symbol of faith for many different peoples. The Ephesians worshipped Cybele, and incorporated many of their beliefs into the worship of Artemis. Artemisian Cybele became quite contrasted from her Roman counterpart, Diana. The cult of Artemis attracted thousands of worshippers from far-off lands. They would all gather at the site and worship her.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos of Alexandria, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was the tallest structure in the world until the Eiffel Tower was erected in 1889.

Historians affirm that the construction of the lighthouse was necessary as it ensured a safe return to the Great Harbor for sailors crossing the Mediterranean Sea. For architects, it meant, even more, it was the tallest building on Earth. And for scientists, it was a fascinating and intriguing mystery. It was very impressive piece of piece of architecture that it made its way to be on the list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The Lighthouse was used, like the sun by day and fire by night, to make sure that sailors could safely navigate the dangerous waters. The lighthouse stood until 1323 AD when a powerful earthquake destroyed it. Then came Sultan Qayetbay and fortified the place as a part of his coastal defenses and built on its site his castle.

What happened to the lighthouse of Alexandria?

In 796 and 951, during two earthquakes, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was partially damaged but was still standing, but following three more earthquakes in 1303 and 1323, the Lighthouse finally collapsed.

Why was the lighthouse of Alexandria built?

The lighthouse was used to guide thousands of ships safely into the harbor. During the day, a reflective mirror on the top level of the lighthouse would reflect the sunlight to guide the ships. At night, a fire was used instead. It’s said that it was so effective that it could be seen from 100 miles out to sea.

When was the lighthouse of Alexandria built?

The Lighthouse of Alexandria was built around 247 BC.

Where is the Lighthouse of Alexandria Located?

It was once located on the southeast corner of the Island of Pharos in the city of Alexandria on the north coast of Egypt.

Who built the Lighthouse of Alexandria?

It was constructed during the reign of Ptolemy II and completed during the reign of Ptolemy during (280–247 BC.)

How tall was the lighthouse of alexandria?

The lighthouse stood on the island of Pharos in the harbour of Alexandria and is said to have been more than 350 feet (110 metres) high.

The Construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

The lighthouse was constructed in the 3rd century BC; once Alexander the Great died shortly after leaving Egypt under Greek administration, Ptolemy I Soter made himself king in 305 BC. During his reign, Ptolemy ordered the construction of the Lighthouse. The tall building was concluded during Ptolemy’s successor son’s reign Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

A total of 12 years were needed for the completion of the whole building and a total of 800 talents of silver were used. The Lighthouse was 300 feet tall; the only taller man-made structures at the time would have been the pyramids of Giza. A lot of information about the construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria remains still just speculations after the tower collapsed due to a powerful earthquake in 1323 AD.

The lighthouse was built from large blocks of light-colored stone. The tower was made of three tapering tiers. The first was a lower square section with a central core; the middle octagonal section; and, at the top, a circular section.

Who was the Architect of the Lighthouse of Alexandria?

The lighthouse was built by the architect Sostratus of Cnidus. Sostratus of Cnidus was a powerful man. He had the ears of kings, a close relation to King Ptolemy I and his son.

Is the lighthouse of Alexandria still standing?

The lighthouse is no longer standing, though it did stand for almost 1,500 years. It survived many Egyptian regimes and conflicts, even the one that resulted in the destruction of the Library of Alexandria.

The Comedown of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

You might be asking what happened to the Lighthouse of Alexandria? In 796 and 951, during two earthquakes, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was partially damaged but was still standing, but following three more earthquakes in 1303 and 1323, the Lighthouse finally collapsed. The most destructive earthquake is known to be the one in 1303 originating from the Greek Island of Crete. The last remainings of the Lighthouse disappeared in 1480 when the Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, ordered the construction of a medieval fort on the platform where the Lighthouse once stood.

The Rediscovering of the Lighthouse of Alexandria

In 1968 during an archeological expedition sponsored by UNESCO, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was rediscovered underwater in the area of the Mediterranean Sea in the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The expedition was led by Honor Frost to the site of the Lighthouse; Frost confirmed the existence of ruins representing part of the lighthouse. The zone was a military zone that ended up putting the exploration on hold.

In 1994, French archeologist Jeans-Yves Empereur uncovered the physical remains of the Lighthouse of Alexandria ruins on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbor. A cinematographer was able to capture the images of the columns and statues found underwater. Most of the findings consisted of giant blocks of granite weighing 40-60 tones each, 30 sphinxes statue, and 5 obelisks columns which carvings dated to Ramses II reign in 1279-1213 BC.

Many other expeditions in the future years continued to find remains of the Lighthouse of Alexandria. To this day, it’s possible for divers to see the underwater remains submerged by the earthquakes.

UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is currently trying to work with the Government of Egypt to add the Bay of Alexandria to a list of the World Heritage List of submerged sites. In 2016, the Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt made a plan to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, into an underwater museum.

Dive and discover the remains of the Lighthouse of Alexandria through one of our Egypt vacation packages.

The Colossus of Rhodes was a giant statue of the Greek god Helios, erected on the Greek island of Rhodes by Chares of Lindos, a pupil of Lysippos, between 292 and 280 BC. It was roughly the same size as the Statue of Liberty in New York, although it stood on a lower platform. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The decision to erect the statue

Alexander the Great died at an early age in 323 BC without having had time to put into place any plans for his succession. Fighting broke out among his generals, the Diadochi, with three of them eventually dividing up much of his empire in the Mediterranean area. During the fighting Rhodes had sided with Ptolemy, and when Ptolemy eventually took control of Egypt, Rhodes and Ptolemaic Egypt formed an alliance which controlled much of the trade in the eastern Mediterranean.

Another of Alexander's generals, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, was upset by this turn of events. In 305 BC he had his son Demetrius Poliorcetes (now a famous general in his own right) invade Rhodes with an army of 40,000. However, the city was well defended, and Demetrius—whose name "Poliorcetes" signifies the "besieger of cities"—had to start construction of a number of massive siege towers in order to gain access to the walls. The first was mounted on six ships, but these were capsized in a storm before they could be used. He tried again with an even larger land-based tower named Helepolis, but the Rhodian defenders stopped this by flooding the land in front of the walls so that the rolling tower could not move. In 304 BC a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived, and Demetrius's army left in a hurry, leaving most of their siege equipment. Despite his failure at Rhodes, Demetrius earned the nickname Poliorcetes by his successes elsewhere. To celebrate their victory, the Rhodians decided to build a giant statue of their patron god, Helios. Construction was left to the direction of Chares, a native of Rhodes, who had been involved with large-scale statues before. His teacher, the famed sculptor Lysippus, had constructed a sixty-foot-high statue of Zeus. In order to pay for the construction of the Colossus, the Rhodians sold all of the siege equipment that Demetrius left behind in front of their city.

Colossus of Rhodes, imagined in a 16th-century engraving by Martin Heemskerck, part of his series of the Seven Wonders of the World

Construction

Ancient accounts (which differ to some degree) describe the structure as being built around several stone columns (or towers of blocks) forming the interior of the structure, which stood on a fifteen-meter-high (fifty-foot) white marble pedestal near the Mandraki harbour entrance. Other sources place the Colossus on a breakwater in the harbour. Iron beams were embedded in the stone towers, and bronze plates attached to the bars formed the visible skin of the sculpture. Much of the iron and bronze was reforged from the various weapons Demetrius's army left behind, and the abandoned second siege tower was used for scaffolding around the lower levels during construction. Upper portions were built with the use of a large earthen ramp. The statue itself was over 34 metres (110 feet) tall.

After twelve years, in 280 BC, the great statue was completed.

Destruction

The statue stood for only fifty-six years until Rhodes was hit by an earthquake in 224 BC. The statue snapped at the knees and fell over onto the land. Ptolemy III offered to pay for the reconstruction of the statue, but an oracle made the Rhodians afraid that they had offended Helios, and they declined to rebuild it. The remains lay on the ground for over 800 years, and even broken, they were so impressive that many travelled to see them. Pliny the Elder remarked that few people could wrap their arms around the fallen thumb and that each of its fingers was larger than most statues. In AD 654 an Arab force under Muawiyah I captured Rhodes, and according to the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor, the remains were sold to a travelling salesman from Edessa. The buyer had the statue broken down, and transported the bronze scrap on the backs of 900 camels to his home. Pieces continued to turn up for sale for years, after being found along the caravan route.

The myth

The harbour-straddling Colossus was a figment of later imaginations. Many older illustrations (above) show the statue with one foot on either side of the harbour mouth with ships passing under it: "… the brazen giant of Greek fame, with conquering limbs astride from land to land …" (" The New Colossus", the poem inscribed at the base of the Statue of Liberty). Shakespeare's Cassius in Julius Caesar (I,ii,136–38) says of Caesar:

Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world

Like a Colossus, and we petty men

Walk under his huge legs and peep about

To find ourselves dishonourable graves

The Colossus in modern times

Image:Rhodes colossos.jpg

Colossus of Rhodes (Postcard)

Media reports in 1989 initially suggested that large stones found on the seabed off the coast of Rhodes might have been the remains of the Colossus; however this theory was later shown to be without foundation.

There has been much debate as to whether to rebuild the Colossus. Those in favour say it would boost tourism in Rhodes greatly, but those against construction say it would cost too large an amount (over 100 million euro). This idea has been revived many times since it was first proposed in 1970 but, due to lack of funding, work has not yet started. The plans for the Colossus have been in the works since 1998 by the Greek-Cypriot artist Nikolaos Kotziamanis.

In Sergio Leone's sword and sandal film Il Colosso di Rodi (1961) the Colossus stands spread-legged over the only entrance to Rhodes' harbour. In this instance the statue is hollow (like the Statue of Liberty) and is armed with defensive weaponry.

Sylvia Plath's poem "The Colossus", refers to the Colossus of Rhodes. Perhaps the most famous reference to the Colossus, however, is in the immortal poem, "The New Colossus," by Emma Lazarus, written in 1883 and inscribed on a plaque at the Statue of Liberty in New York City's harbour.

Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame,

With conquering limbs astride from land to land;

Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand

A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame

Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name

Mother of Exiles. From her beacon-hand

Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command

The air-bridged harbour that twin cities frame.

"Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!" cries she

With silent lips. "Give me your tired, your poor,

Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,

The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,

I lift my lamp beside the golden door!

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was a large and ornate mausoleum built both to honor and hold the remains of Mausolus of Caria. When Mausolus died in 353 BCE, his wife Artemisia ordered the construction of this vast structure in their capital city, Halicarnassus (now called Bodrum) in modern Turkey. Ultimately, both Mausolus and Artemisia were buried inside.

The Mausoleum, considered one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World, retained its grandeur for nearly 1,800 years until earthquakes in the 15th century destroyed part of the structure. Eventually, nearly all of the stone was taken away to be used in nearby building projects, particularly for a Crusader castle.

Mausolus

Upon the death of his father in 377 BCE, Mausolus became the satrap (a regional governor in the Persian Empire) for Caria. Although only a satrap, Mausolus was like a king in his realm, ruling for 24 years.

Mausolus was descended from the indigenous herdsmen of the area, called Carians, but appreciated Greek culture and society. Thus, Mausolus encouraged the Carians to leave their lives as herdsmen and embrace the Greek way of life.

Mausolus was also all about expansion. He moved his capital city from Mylasa to the coastal city of Halicarnassus and then worked on a number of projects to beautify the city, including building a large palace for himself. Mausolus was also politically savvy and was thus able to add several nearby cities to his realm.

When Mausolus died in 353 BCE, his wife Artemisia, who also happened to be his sister, was grief-stricken. She wanted the most beautiful tomb built for her departed husband. Sparing no expense, she hired the very best sculptors and architects that money could buy.

It is unfortunate that Artemisia died just two years after her husband, in 351 BCE, not seeing the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus completed.

Mausoleum of Halicarnassus

Built from about 353 to 350 BCE, there were five famous sculptors that worked on the exquisite tomb. Each sculptor had a portion that they were responsible for -- Bryaxis (north side), Scopas (east side), Timotheus (south side), and Leochares (west side). The chariot on top was created by Pythias.

The structure of the Mausoleum was made up of three parts: a square base on the bottom, 36 columns (9 on each side) in the middle, and then topped by a stepped pyramid that had 24 steps. All of this was covered in ornate carvings, with life-size and larger-than-life statues abounding.

At the very top was the piece de resistance; the chariot. This 25-foot-high marble sculpture consisted of standing statues of both Mausolus and Artemisia riding in a chariot pulled by four horses.

Much of the Mausoleum was made out of marble and the entire structure reached 140 feet high. Although large, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was known more for its ornate sculptures and carvings. Most of these were painted in vibrant colors.

There were also friezes that wrapped around the entire building. These were extremely detailed and included scenes of battle and hunting, as well as scenes from Greek mythology that included such mythic animals as centaurs.

The Collapse

After 1,800 years, the long-lasting Mausoleum was destroyed by earthquakes that occurred during the 15th century CE in the region. During and after that time, much of the marble was carried away in order to build other buildings, most especially a Crusader fortress held by the Knights of St. John. Some of the elaborate sculptures were moved into the fortress as decoration.

In 1522 CE, the crypt that for so long had safely held the remains of Mausolus and Artemisia was raided. Over time, people forgot exactly where the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus had stood. Houses were built on top.

In the 1850s, British archaeologist Charles Newton recognized that some of the decorations at Bodrum Castle, as the Crusader fortress was now called, could have been from the famous Mausoleum. After studying the area and excavating, Newton found the site of the Mausoleum. Today, the British Museum in London contains statues and relief slabs from the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus.

Mausoleums Today

Interestingly, the modern word "mausoleum," which means a building used as a tomb, comes from the name Mausolus, for whom this wonder of the world was named.

The tradition of creating mausoleums in cemeteries continues around the world today. Families and individuals build mausoleums, both large and small, in their own or others' honor following their deaths. In addition to these more common mausoleums, there are other, larger mausoleums that are tourist attractions today. The world's most famous mausoleum is the Taj Mahal in India.

SECTION-4. TOP 5 Ancient university in INDIA

1. Nalanda University - (425 AD -1205 AD)

By far the most complete description we have today is of the Nalanda University in the ancient kingdom of Magadha thanks to the writings (7th Century CE) of Chinese travelers Xuanzang and Yijing.
Students came to one of the most prestigious learning centers in the world from far across to learn from the highly acclaimed teachers at the university.
The locations from which students traveled for education include Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia.
As many as 100 lectures were held in a day, and according to Yijing, students did not want to miss even a minute of these.
It wasn’t easy to gain admission into Nalanda University, to be accepted as a pupil of renowned gurus required great knowledge and competence.
According to the accounts of Xuanzang, Nalanda had a very tough entrance examination. The students of Nalanda were looked up to as models all over India and highly respected, according to Xuanzang. One had to merely mention one’s Nalanda antecedents to be bestowed with admiration.
Taking advantage of this, some people even faked their Nalanda degrees! By the seventh century, there were four other universities in Bihar, all largely inspired by Nalanda.
They worked in collaboration, and by the tenth century one of them—Vikramshila —emerged as a serious competitor to Nalanda in higher education.
A wide range of subjects were taught in Nalanda religions and secular, philosophical and practical, sciences and arts it was the most complete education available at that time, says Xuanzang who himself studied there for five years.
When he told them about his impending visit to Ceylon, they said it was futile because he would not meet anyone superior to them in knowledge. Intrigued, Xuanzang began to discuss yoga texts with them.
To his disappointment, he found their explanations not as good as the one he got from Professor Silabhadra at Nalanda University.
Nalanda mainly flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire as well as emperors such as Harsha and later, the rulers of the Pala Empire.
Various endowments were made by kings, which led to the construction of impressive buildings, majestic in their size with richly adorned towers and turrets that gave the look of hill-tops, and observatories that were covered by mist in the mornings.
According to Xuanzang, there was a lofty wall all around the grounds and a big gate, which opened into the university with a big main hall that separated eight other halls.
He describes that the upper rooms towered above the clouds and from their windows, one could see the wind and clouds producing new forms, and from the soaring eaves (overhang from the roof), splendid sunsets and moonlit glories could be seen.
He wrote in his memoirs: “All the outside courts in which are the priests’ chambers are of four stages. The stages have dragon projections, and colored eaves, pearl-red pillars carved and ornamented, richly adorned balustrades, while the roofs are covered with tiles that reflect the light in a thousand shades.”
A similar description is given in the Nalanda Stone Inscription of Yasovarman of the 8th century stating that the rows of monasteries had their series of summits (Shikhara-Shreni) licking the clouds (Ambudhara).
The grounds had deep, translucent ponds bearing blue lotuses interspersed with the deep red Kanaka flower, while Amra groves spread their shade all around.
The massive external grandeur of the buildings is said to have contrasted with the delicate artistic beauty of the interior.

2. Takahashila - (600BC-500BC)

Ranked as the top tourist destination in Pakistan by The Guardian newspaper in 2006. Taxila or Takshashila was an ancient capital city of the Buddhist kingdom of Gandhara and a center of learning, in what is now North-Western Pakistan. It is one of the most known ancient universities in India. Taxila was an early center of learning to date back to at least the 5th century BCE. It is considered a place of religious and historical sanctity by Hindus and Buddhists and was the seat of Vedic learning where the emperor Chandragupta Maurya was taken there by Chanakya to learn in the institution. The institution is very significant in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the Mahayana sect of Buddhism took shape there.
Taxila is known from references in Indian and Greco-Roman literary sources and from the accounts of two Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Faxian and Xuanzang. According to the Indian epic Ramayana, by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. The city was named for Bharata’s son Taksha, its first ruler. Buddhist literature, especially the Jatakas, mentions it as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and as a great center of learning. Greek historians accompanying the Macedonian conqueror described Taxila as “wealthy, prosperous, and well-governed.” Taxila was situated at the pivotal junction of South Asia and Central Asia. Its origin as a city goes back to c. 1000 BCE. Some ruins at Taxila date to the time of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE followed successively by Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Kushan periods. Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed by the nomadic Hunas in the 5th century. The archaeologist Alexander Cunningham rediscovered the ruins of Taxila in the mid-19th century.

3. Vikramshila University - (800 AD – 1203 AD)

The Indian state of Magadha (now Bihar) was home to another great seat of learning.
Vikramshila along with Nalanda formed the era’s powerful duo of knowledge and education.
It was said to be founded by King Dharmapala at the end of the 8th century.
Unlike other ancient places of learning, Vikramshila opened its gates to only those who wished to become Buddhist monks. After attaining their education, these monks traveled to far-off lands to spread Buddhism.
It is stated that the Vikramshila campus had six different colleges with each one imparting a different specialization.
Subjects such as Sanskrit grammar, Logic, Metaphysics, Philosophy, Buddist Tantra and Ritualism were in vogue.
As per the accounts of Tibetan pilgrim monks, it was at Vikramshila where the culture of awarding degrees and recognition first started.
The titles of Mahapandit and Pandit were accorded as per merit to those who completed their education. The extraordinary alums had their portraits painted on the walls of the university.
Vikramshila met the same fate as Nalanda in 1203 AD.
In many ways, the fate of both universities was entwined.
In addition to being exceptional universities, both enjoyed great royal patronage in their time, both had astonishing libraries, and both were ransacked and burnt to the ground by the same Turkic invader, Bakhtiyar Khilji.

4. Vallabhi University - (600 AD – 1200 AD)

This ancient Indian seat of learning was situated in Vallabhi (modern-day Bhavnagar) in Western India.
Like other universities of that time, Vallabhi also benefited from royal endowments. The lineage of the Maitrak dynasty became the patrons of the university and helped in building its infrastructure.
By the middle of the 7th century, Vallabhi had become famous for teaching Buddhist philosophy and Vedic sciences.
The other main subjects taught at the university were Statesmanship, Economics, Book-keeping, Business, and Agriculture.
The University continued to function until the 12th century despite being at the center of the Arab invasions around the late 8th century.
It can be deduced that the attacks weakened the influence of patron kings and their financial ability to support the great institution.
Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth (600 AD)
Named after a famous Buddhist philosopher, Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth was situated in South India on the banks of the Krishna river.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the university and its library flourished in the 7th century.
Its library housed on the top floor of the five-story building had an enormous collection of Buddhist philosophy, science and medicine.
The enormity of the collection is borne out by the fact that it not only had works on the Buddhist literature but also on several branches of scientific knowledge, such as Botany, Geography, Mineralogy and Medicine.
It was a great attraction for scholars from other ancient Indian universities and from other countries, like China, Burma and Ceylon.

5. Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth - (600 AD)

Named after a famous Buddhist philosopher, Nagarjuna Vidyapeeth was situated in South India on the banks of the Krishna river.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the university and its library flourished in the 7th century.
Its library housed on the top floor of the five-story building had an enormous collection of Buddhist philosophy, science, and medicine.
The enormity of the collection is borne out by the fact that it not only worked on Buddhist literature but also on several branches of scientific knowledge, such as Botany, Geography, Mineralogy, and Medicine.
It was a great attraction for scholars from other ancient Indian universities and from other countries, like China, Burma, and Ceylon.

SECTION-5. The Greatest Invention's

Larry Gormley

This article was written -: WORLD Greatest Inventions

During the technology feeding frenzy of the late 1990s many experts declared the Internet one of the most important inventions since the Industrial Revolution. However, after the happenings of the past few years that perspective has changed. While the Internet and the World Wide Web have certainly impacted the lives of many millions of people it is certainly not the greatest invention of the past millennium, in fact it might not even make the the top ten.

As Robert J. Gordon writes, "Internet surfing may be fun, but it represents a far smaller increment in the standard of living than achieved by the extension of day into night achieved by electric light, the revolution in factory efficiency achieved by the electric motor, the flexibility and freedom achieved by the automobile, the saving of time and shrinking of the globe achieved by the airplane, the new materials achieved by the chemical industry, the first sense of live two-way communication achieved by the telephone, the arrival of live news and entertainment into the family parlor achieved by radio and then television, and the enormous improvements in life expectancy, health, and comfort achieved by urban sanitation and indoor plumbing." What are the greatest inventions of the past 1000 years? If we use as the prime criteria 'improving the standard of living', the author presents (with temerity) the following top 10 list:

Year

Inventor

Notes

Printing Press

1450

Johannes Gutenberg

allowed literacy to greatly expand

Electric Light

1879

Thomas Edison

powered countless social changes

Automobile

1885

Karl Benz

increased personal mobility and freedom

Telephone

1876

Alexander Graham Bell

spread communication across wide areas

Radio and Television

1895 & 1926

Guglielmo Marconi & John Baird

made the world smaller

Vaccination

1796

Edward Jenner

protected people from disease

Computer

1939

John Atanasoff, et al.

transformed business world; predecessor to the Internet

Airplane

1903

Orville and Wilbur Wright

allowed people and products to quickly move

Gas powered tractor

1892

John Froelich

started agricultural mechanization

10.

Anesthesia

1844

Horace Wells

provided a great leap forward for medicine

Sources:

Edge Foundation, Inc., "What Is The Most Important Invention In The Past Two Thousand Years?"

Gordon, Robert J. Does the "New Economy" Measure up to the Great Inventions of the Past? NBER Working Paper No.w7833 Issued in August 2000

Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century National Academy of Engineering http://www.greatachievements.org/

Platt, Richard. Smithsonian Visual Timeline of Inventions. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1994.

Themes

11. Great Inventions We Can Thank for India

1.The Zero

The biggest and the most important contribution to the history of mathematics was ‘Zero’, which is literally nothing, but without it, there would have been no binary system and subsequently, no computers. And who gave the world this numeral? All thanks need to go to the man of numerous mathematical and astronomical talents, Aryabhata. Indians were the first to use ‘Zero’ as a symbol and in mathematical operations, such as addition, subtraction, etc.

2.The Ayurveda

If you’ve ever undergone Ayurvedic therapy, you’ve got India to thank India for it or, more precisely, the Father of Medicine, Charaka, who was one of the prime contributors to Ayurveda. ‘Ayurveda’ means ‘science of life’; it is a traditional school of medicine, invented and practised in India for over 5,000 years, and helps people attain good health and living, without the use of prescription drugs. This ancient system of medicine has persisted even in the 21st century, and in recent years, it has gained popularity across the world as a complementary and alternative medicine.

3.The USB (Universal Serial Bus)

A man with many accolades under his belt, Ajay V. Bhatt (an Indian-American computer architect) made the USB, a little removable storage device that is capable of holding a large chunk of data storage and transfer. Plus, it’s easy to carry and use.

4.Board games

That’s right – you have India to thank for board games, such as the classic ‘Chess’ and ‘Snakes and Ladders’. Chess is the game of intellectuals, and it originated as ‘Ashtapada’ during the Gupta period around the 6th century AD. Gyandev, a 13th-century poet, invented ‘Snakes and Ladders’, originally known as ‘Mokshapat’. The snakes represent vices, while ladders denote virtues. During the British rule in India, this ancient Indian game made its way to England and later to the USA.

5.Yoga

A significant contribution in the field of healthy living, India introduced the world to yoga, discovered and practised in the country since ancient times, with origins tracing back to Lord Shiva (also known as Adi Yoga), the first yoga guru. Today, people practise this spiritual, physical and mental exercise across the world on a daily basis for healthy living. Moreover, the world celebrates ‘International Yoga Day’ on June 21st every year, and the man responsible for this day is none other than India Prime Minister Mr Narendra Modi, who initiated the concept of practising yoga and celebrating it as Yoga Day.

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6.Shampoo

Yes, you have India to thank for shampoo, invented in 1762 in the eastern parts of the Mughal Empire and used as a ‘head massage’, comprising of natural oils and herbs. The English word ‘shampoo’ derives its name from the Hindi word ‘chāmpo’, which comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Chapayati’, meaning massage or knead.

7.Wireless communication

This invention revolutionised the way we communicate. While historians credit Guglielmo Marconi with inventing the wireless radio communication, Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose was actually the first person who demonstrated the use of radio waves for communication publicly back in 1895, exactly two years before Marconi gave a similar demo in England. In other words, Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose invented wireless communication technology, which enables people to communicate quickly and transmit information over a distance without the need for electrical conductors, wires or cables.

8.Buttons

You will be surprised to learn that buttons also come from India. Yes, it’s true! The origins of buttons trace back to the Indus Valley Civilisation in 2000 BCE. Some 5,000 years ago, they were made out of seashells and formed into geometric shapes with tiny holes bored into them. In the past, they were used for ornamental purposes, but gradually, people started to use them for fastening clothes.

9.Cure for leprosy and lithiasis

India has been contributing substantially to the field of medicine for centuries. Indians first identified and cured leprosy by using ancient remedies mentioned in the Atharva Veda (1500–1200 BCE), though its inventor’s name remains unknown. Lithiasis refers to the formation of stones in the body, and India was the first to treat this disease in a treatment described in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE), a textbook on ancient surgery.

10.Cataract surgery

This one is another breakthrough in the field of medicine. For cataract surgery, the world can thank Sushruta, an Indian physician who developed this operation in the 3rd century CE. He was also the main contributor to the Sushruta Samhita. He performed this surgery using a curved needle (called Jabamukhi Salaka) that loosened the lens and then pushed the cataract into the back of the eye. The surgeon used warm butter to soak the eyes and then placed bandages on them until they were healed. This method was successful; however, Sushruta advised everyone to perform this surgery only when necessary. Eventually, this operation was later extended to the West and across the world. While it may seem unbelievable, it’s true!

11.Natural fibres

The products made from natural fibres, such as jute, cotton and wool, all have their origins in India. The finest wool – cashmere wool – came from the Kashmir region of India and was used for making woollen shawls. The country also pioneered jute and cotton cultivation. The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilisation grew cotton during the 5th millennium–4th millennium BCE and converted the cotton into threads, which were later used in fabrics. Also, since ancient times, India has been growing jute (a plant fibre) and exporting raw jute to the West.

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SECTION-6. Planets Detail

The word planet is derived from the word “planets” which means wanderer this name is given to them as they appear to wander in the night sky from east to west while stars also move from east to west but they seem to remain fixed relative to each other and the planet relative to them seem to move forward and backward. A planet is a celestial body that revolves around the sun in fixed orbits and planets do not have the light of their own but reflects the light of the sun they also do not twinkle like other stars as they are too close to us and till now the earth is the only known planet to harbor life and have the favorable condition . Understanding the Planets - According to the widely accepted Big Bang theory, our Universe started with an explosion of a concentrated mass in space. Later the constellation of stars and planet systems emerged. Our solar system is one of such many planetary systems. It consists of 8 planets in the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto was discarded from the list in August 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is now recognized as a dwarf planet. The Sun present at the center of the Solar system is the hinge point and source of energy for all planets. The first four inner planets are termed terrestrial planets as they are constructed of solid mass and have hard surfaces. They are also known as telluric planets or Rocky planets. The four exterior planets are giant balls of gases and are termed Jovian planets. Mankind has had knowledge about planets since ancient ages but after the invention of telescopes, scientists discovered the presence of the lesser-known Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Earth is the most distinct planet of all because of the life system it sustains. Being located at a very appropriate distance from the sun which maintains a convenient environment that is neither too hot nor too cold makes it possible.

Mercury - It’s the nearest planet to the sun and is also the smallest planet in the solar system and takes around 88 days to complete one revolution (to be exact 88.97 days) which is the smallest time duration. Its size is slightly larger than the size of the moon of earth. It does not have many moons and climatic conditions that are not favorable for any form of life as it is too near to the Sun. Its surface temperature ranges from 100 K at night to 700 K during the day (this high diurnal range of temperature is there because the planet has no atmosphere to retain and this is the highest among all planets). It’s the second densest planet in our solar system with the smallest tilt in its axis among all the planets in the solar system.

Venus - When observed from the Earth, it’s the second brightest (after the observed moon) and takes 224.7 Earth days to complete one revolution and 243 Earth days for rotation on its axis (it takes the maximum time period among all planets to complete one rotation). It rotates in the opposite direction to all planets except Uranus (from West to East). It’s also observed that one day on Venus is equal to one year on Earth. It’s also called Earth’s twin sister because of its similar size, shape, mass, and proximity to the sun and of its bulky composition. It’s not suitable for human settlement because it contains 96% carbon in the atmosphere. The surface temperature is very high (a mean temperature of 735K), making it the warmest planet in our solar system.

Earth - It’s the third planet from the Sun and is the only known planet to harbour life. The Earth's age is around 4.5 billion years old. It takes 365.264 days to complete one revolution around the Sun and 24 hours to complete one rotation on its axis (and after every four complete revolutions 4years4years4 years it takes a day longer 366 days to complete a revolution). It is covered by 71% of water and its crust is divided into different tectonic plates (lithosphere). Earth’s innermost part remains active and its inner core is solid while the outer core is liquid which generates Earth's magnetic field.

Mars - It’s the fourth planet from the sun and also the second-smallest in the solar system. Its red colour also makes it known as the red planet (presence of iron oxide). It has two moons - Phobos and Deimos. Its gravity is 38% of the Earth's gravity and takes 687 Earth's day and one full Mars year (16,500 hours).

Jupiter - It’s the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest planet among all. It’s also one of the brightest things that can be seen in the sky with the naked eye. Jupiter is a giant ball of gases with a one-thousand mass of the Sun and lacks a well-defined surface.

Saturn - It’s the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest planet in the solar system. It’s a giant gas planet with an average radius that is nine times the radius of the earth. The inner core is made of iron and nickel. An electric current within the hydrogen layer gives rise to the magnetic field of Saturn which is a little less than the earth's magnetic field.

Uranus - It’s the seventh planet from the Sun and has the fourth-largest planet by mass and third-largest by radius. It's also referred to as ice giant and its primary component is similar to Jupiter and Saturn but it also has more ices such as methane, water, and ammonia and also traces of hydrocarbons. It rotates in the opposite direction from all the planets except venus( it rotates from west to east).

Neptune -It’s the eighth planet from the Sun. It’s the fourth-largest planet by diameter. The third most massive planet and is the densest giant planet - it’s slightly larger than Uranus and Neptune. It orbits the Sun every 164.8 years and is denser than Uranus and physically smaller than Uranus.

SECTION-7. Student's G.K

सामान्य ज्ञान विषय के वर्गों में से एक है जो SSC CGL, SSC CHSL, Bank PO, Clerk, UPSC, आदि जैसी विभिन्न परीक्षाओं में शामिल है। इस अनुभाग को उच्च स्कोरिंग माना जाता है और इसका उद्देश्य दुनिया से संबंधित विभिन्न विषयों के बारे में उम्मीदवारों केसामान्य ज्ञान का परीक्षण करना है। ऐसा कोई निश्चित पैटर्न नहीं है जिसके द्वारा प्रतियोगी परीक्षाओं में विश्व सामान्य ज्ञान के प्रश्न पूछे जाते हैं। प्रश्न विश्व अर्थशास्त्र, इतिहास, भूगोल, आदि से रखे जा सकते हैं। यही कारण है कि उम्मीदवारों के लिए परीक्षा की तैयारी के लिए यथासंभव उत्तरों के साथ कई विश्व जीके प्रश्नों के माध्यम से जाना महत्वपूर्ण है।

इस पोस्ट में, हम विभिन्न प्रतियोगी परीक्षाओं की तैयारी के लिए सबसे महत्वपूर्ण और नवीनतम विश्व सामान्य ज्ञान प्रश्न और उत्तर प्रदान कर रहे हैं। इसके अलावा, हम आपको विश्व सामान्य जागरूकता के साथ अपडेट रखने के लिए नियमित रूप से प्रश्नों को अपडेट कर रहे हैं। यदि आपके पास भी कोई प्रश्न या संदेह है तो आप इसे पोस्ट कर सकते हैं . Q.1. विश्व की सबसे व्यस्त व्यापारिक नदी कौनसी है

ANS. राइन

Q.2. सदाबहार वन पाये जाते हैं

विषुवतीय क्षेत्र में

Q.3. निम्न में से किसे ‘भूमध्यसागर की कुंजी’ कहा जाता है

जिब्राल्ट जल सन्धि

Q.4. ‘हजार झीलों की भूमि’ के नाम से कौन प्रसिद्ध है

ANS. फिनलैंड

Q.5. ‘श्वेत पेरिल गणतंत्र’ के नाम से भी कौन सा देश जाना जाता है

ANS. बेलारूस

Q.6. ‘मलेशिया की सिलिकॉन घाटी’ किसे कही जाती है

ANS. पेनाग

Q.7. ‘ब्रॉड वे’ के नाम से कौन

सा नगर जाना जाता है

ANS. न्यूयॉर्क

Q.8. ‘क्वेकर सिटी’ के उपनाम से कौन

सा नगर जाना जाता है

ANS. फिलाडेल्फिया

Q.9. किस देश का प्राचीन नाम पर्शिया है

ANS. ईरान

Q.10. जाम्बिया का प्राचीन नाम क्या है

ANS. उत्तरी रोडेशिया

Q.11. ‘सेकेण्ड न्यूफाउण्डलैंड’ के नामसे कौन सा देश प्रसिद्ध है

ANS. जापान

Q.12. किस देश को ‘वनों का देश’ कहा जाता है

ANS. कांगो प्रजातांत्रिक गणतंत्र

Q.13. ‘स्वर्णिम पैगोडा का देश’ के नाम से कौन सा देश जाना जाता है

ANS. म्यांमार

Q.14. लदांग चलवासी कृषि किस देश से सम्बन्धित है

ANS. मलेशिया

Q.15. विश्व में निकिल का सबसे बड़ा निर्यातक देश कौनसा है

ANS. कनाडा

Q.16. मेसाबी रेंज किसके सम्बन्धित है

ANS. लौह

अयस्क

Q.17. विश्व में चाँदी का सबसे बड़ा उत्पादक कौन है

ANS. मैक्सिको

Q.18. मुम्बई से युरोप जाने के लिये किस नहर जलमार्ग से होकर गुजरना पड़ेगा

ANS. स्वेज

Q.19. मेघ गर्जन वायुमण्डल की किस परत में होता है

ANS. क्षोभ मण्डल

Q.20. संचार उपग्रह किस वायुमण्डल स्तर में स्थित होते हैं

ANS. आयन मण्डल

Q.21. व्यापारिक पवनें कहाँ से चलती हैं

ANS. उपोषण उच्च दाब से

Q.22. प्रतिचक्रवात किस क्षेत्र में कम उत्पन्न होते हैं

ANS. भूमध्य रेखीय क्षेत्र

Q.23. सर्वप्रथम किस मानचित्रकार ने प्रक्षेप में स्थानों को उनके अक्षांश व देशान्तरों के अनुसार प्रदर्शित किया था

मेरीनस

Q.24. संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के दक्षिण

पूर्वी तट पर उठने वाली तूफानी चक्रवात को क्या कहा जाता है

टोरनैडो

Q.25. महासागरों में स्थल की पर्वत श्रेणियों जैसी संकरी और लम्बी पर्वत श्रेणियों को कहते हैं

जलमग्न कटक

Q.27. आंतरिक हिमालय की प्रमुख चोटी ‘कंचनजंगा’ की ऊँचाई कितनी है

8598 मीटर

Q.28. ‘अबूजा ‘ किसे देश की नई राजधानी है

नाइजीरिया की

Q.29. ‘सैण्डविच द्वीप ‘ किसका पुराना नाम है

हवाई द्वीप का

Q.30. समुद्र में सबसे अधिक गहराई का बिंदु है

चैलेन्जर द्वीप

Q.31. ‘आदम ब्रिज ‘ की स्थिति के पास कौन

सा जलडमरूमध्य स्थित है

पाक स्ट्रेट

Q.32. विश्व के किस महाद्वीप में कोई रेगिस्तान नहीं है

यूरोप में

Q.33. ‘भूगोल पृथ्वी को केन्द्र मानकर अध्ययन करने वाला विज्ञान है’ यह कथन किसका है

वारेनियस

Q.34. नम बिन्दु बस्तियाँ किस क्षेत्र में पायी जाती हैं

मरुस्थलीय

Q.34. कौन

सा सागर महासागरीय मरुस्थल के रूप में पहचाना जाता है

सारगैसो सागर

Q.36. सर्वप्रथम हरितगृह प्रभाव (ग्रीन हाउस इफेक्ट) को बताने वाला वैज्ञानिक कौन था

आर्थीनियस

Q.37. विश्व के किस देश में सर्वाधिक जनसंख्या पायी जाती है

चीन

Q.38. संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका की सबसे बड़ी स्वर्ण उत्खनन की खान ‘होमस्टेक’ किस राज्य में स्थित है

दक्षिण डकोटा में

Q.39. एण्डीज पर्वतमाला ( दक्षिण अमेरिका ) की सबसे ऊँचा चोटी का क्या नाम है

एकांकागुआ

Q.40. विश्व के अधिकांश पठारी भागों में किस व्यवसाय की प्रधानता पायी जाती है

उतखन्न

Q.41. ‘मेसेटा का पठार’ कहाँ स्थित है

स्पेन और पुर्तगाल

Q.42. ‘कनाडियन पैसिफिक रेलमार्ग’ कहाँ से कहाँ तक जाता है

हैलीफैक्स से बैंकूवर तक

Q.43. न्यूनतम जनसंख्या घनत्व वाला महाद्वीप कौनसा है

ANS. ऑस्ट्रेलिया

Q.44. 2025 ई. में विश्व की अनुमानित जनसंख्या क्या होगी

ANS. 8.0 अरब

Q.45. विश्व के किस महाद्वीप में आदिम जातियों की सर्वाधिक जनसंख्या पायीजाती है

ANS. अफ्रीका

Q.46. किस जनजाति के लोग सर्वभक्षी की श्रेणी में आते हैं

ANS. बुशमैन

Q.47. न्यूजीलैण्ड के निवासियों को किस नाम से जाना जाता है

ANS. किवीज

Q.48. कौन

सा सागर प्रवाल की उत्पत्ति के लिए उपयुक्त होता है

ANS.उष्ण कटिबंधीय महासागर

Q.49. महासागरीय जल की कितनी सर्वाधिक लवणता पायी जाती है

ANS. 35° अक्षांश के निकट

Q.50. कहां पर भूमध्यसागरीय जलवायु नहीं पायी जाती है

ANS. बोलीविया में

Q.51. भूमध्यसागरीय प्रदेश को क्या कहा जाता है

ANS. उद्यमशील प्रदेश

Q.52. दक्षिण

पूर्वी एशिया के अधिकांशदेश किस प्राकृतिक प्रदेश के अन्तर्गत आते हैं

ANS. मानसूनी प्रदेश

Q.53. पेरिस शहर किस नदी के तट पर स्थित है

ANS. सीन

Q.54. फ्रांस की बोर्डो बन्दरगाह किस नदी के तट पर स्थित है

ANS. गेरून

Q.55. जमशेदपुर शहर किन नदियों के संगम पर बसा है

ANS. स्वर्णरेखा एवं खरकई

Q.56. प्रवाल भित्तियों की उत्पत्ति से सम्बन्धित हिमानी नियन्त्रण सिद्धान्त का प्रतिपादन किसने किया है

ANS. डेली

Q.57. तटीय प्रवाल भित्ति एवं स्थल खण्ड के बीच विकसित होने वाले लैगून को क्या कहा जाता है

ANS. बोट चैनल

Q.58. विश्व में सर्वाधिक लवणता किस झील में पायी जाती है

ANS. वॉन झील में

Q.59. मानसूनी प्रदेशों में सर्वाधिक वर्षा कहां होती है

ANS. पूर्वोत्तर भारत में

Q.60. रबड़ किस प्राकृतिक प्रदेश की उपज है

ANS. विषुवतीय प्रदेश

Q.61. दक्षिणी अमेरिका का मध्य चिली किसका उदाहरण है

ANS.भूमध्यसागरीय प्रदेश का

Q.62. उष्ण मानसूनी प्रदेश का सर्वाधिक विस्तार कहां पर है

ANS.एशिया

Q.63. कांगों घाटी में किस प्रकार की जलवायु पायी जाती है

ANS.विषुवतीय

Q.64. मानसूनी प्रदेश को क्या कहा जाता है

ANS.वृद्धिशील प्रदेश

Q.65. विश्व में तम्बाकू का सबसे बड़ा उत्पादक देश कौनसा है

ANS.चीन

Q.66. दक्षिणी

पूर्वी एशिया में रबड़ किस स्थान से लाया गया

ANS. अमेजन बेसिन से

Q.67. विश्व का सबसे बड़ा मूंगफली उत्पादक देश कौनसा है

ANS. चीन

Q.68. इजमिर की घाटी जो अफ्रीम की कृषि के लिए प्रसिद्ध है, किस देश में स्थित है

ANS.टर्की

Q.69. विश्व में कपास की कृषि के अन्तर्गत सर्वाधिक क्षेत्रफल किस देश में पाया जाता है

ANS. भारत

Q.70. चाय के निर्यात में भारत को किस देश की कड़ी प्रतिस्पर्धा का सामना करना पड़ रहा है

ANS. श्रीलंका

Q.71. ट्रंक फार्मिंग का अभिप्राय क्या है

ANS.बागवानी कृषि से

Q.72. सघन खेती के लिए खेतिहर क्षेत्र किस तरह का होना चाहिए

ANS. सिंचित

Q.73. संसार में ताँबे का अग्रणी उत्पादक कौन सा देश है

ANS. अमेरिका

Q.74. हीरा व्यापार का सबसे बड़ा केन्द्र कौनसा है

ANS. एण्टवर्प

Q.75. विश्व का वृहत्तम मत्स्य आहरण क्षेत्र कौनसा है

ANS. ग्रैंड बैंक

Q.76. किसी प्रदेश की कुल जनसंख्या तथा कुल कृषि क्षेत्र का अनुपात क्या कहलाता है

ANS.कार्यिक घनत्व

Q.77. पश्चिमी गोलार्द्ध में स्थित जनसंख्या की दृष्टि से सबसे बड़ा देश कौन है

ANS. संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका

Q.78. अफ्रीका महाद्वीप में सर्वाधिक जनसंख्या वाला देश कौनसा है

ANS. नाइजीरिया

Q.79. जनसंख्या वृद्धि का सर्वाधिक प्रतिशत जिस महाद्वीप के देशों में देखा गया है, वह कौनसा है

ANS. एशिया

Q.80. भारत एवं चीन वर्तमान में जनांकिकी संक्रमण की किस अवस्था से गुजर रहे हैं

ANS.तृतीय

Q.81. सार्क देशों में सबसे घना आबाद वाला देश कौनसा है

ANS. बांग्लादेश

Q.82. दक्षिण एशिया का सबसे घना बसा देश कौनसा है

ANS. बांग्लादेश

Q.83. खिरगीज कहां की घुमक्कड़ी जनजाति है

ANS. मध्य एशिया की

Q.84. विश्व के किस मरुस्थल में बुशमैन नामक चलवासी जनजाति के लोग रहते हैं

ANS.कालाहारी

Q.85. शिकार के लिये हारपून का प्रयोग कौन

सी जनजाति करती है

ANS.एस्किमों

Q.86. नॉर्वे की राजधानी ‘ओस्लो’ का प्राचीन नाम क्या है

ANS. क्रिस्टीना

Q.87. जायरे का आधुनिक नाम क्या है

ANS. कांगो गणराज्य

Q.88. बोत्सवाना का प्राचीन नाम क्या है

ANS. बेचुआनालैंड

Q.89. किस देश का प्राचीन नाम कारमोसा है

ANS. ताइवान

Q.90. ‘एशिया का प्रवेश द्वार’ कौन सा देश कहलाता है

ANS. तुर्की

Q.91. हॉर्न ऑफ अफ्रीका में शामिल किये जाने वाला कौन से देश हैं

ANS. इथियोपिया, सोमालिया, जिबूती

Q.92. कौन

सा देश ‘प्यासी भूमि का देश’ कहलाता है

ANS. ऑस्ट्रेलिया

Q.93. यूरोप के किस देश को ‘लघु यूरोप’ कहा जाता है

ANS. फ्रांस

Q.94. ‘मीनारों वाला शहर’ के उपनाम से कौन

सा नगर जाना जाता है

ANS. ऑक्सफोर्ड

Q.95. ‘निषि शहर’ के नाम से जाना कौन जाता है

ANS. ल्हासा

Q.96. किस शहर को ‘पूर्व का प्रवेश द्वार’ कहा जाता है

ANS. सिंगापुर

Q.97. ‘ब्राजील का मैनचेस्टर’ कौन कहलाता है

ANS. साओपालो

Q.98. इंगलैंड का बगीचा’ कौन कहलाता है

ANS. केन्ट

Q.99. दक्षिण

पूर्व एशिया का स्थलअवरुद्ध देश कौन सा है

ANS. लाओस

Q.100. क्षेत्रफल की दृष्टि से विश्व का सबसे बड़ा भू आवेष्ठिम देश कौनसा है

ANS. मंगोलिया

Q.101. भूआकृति विज्ञान का जन्मदाता किसे माना जाता है

ANS.पेशेल

Q.102. प्रसिद्ध भौगोलिक ग्रन्थ ‘किताबउल हिन्द’ के लेखक कौन हैं

ANS. अलबरूनी

Q.103. वायु में आपेक्षिक आर्द्रता मापन हेतु कौन सा उपकरण है

ANS.हाइग्रोग्राफ

Q.104. रिक्टर स्केल का प्रयोग किसके मापने में किया जाता है

ANS. भूकम्प के झटके

Q.105. भूकम्प के एक ही समय पर आने वाले स्थानों को मिलाने वाली रेखा क्या कहलाती है

ANS. होमोसिस्मल

Q.106. समान चुम्बकीय झुकाव वाले स्थानों को मिलाने वाली रेखा क्या कहलाती है

ANS. आइसोगोनल

Q.107. सूर्य और पृथ्वी के मध्य न्यूनतम दूरी कब होती है

ANS. 3 जनवरी को

Q.108. सौरमण्डल का दूसरा सबसे बड़ा ग्रह कौनसा है

ANS. शनि

Q.109. सूर्य के सबसे दूर कौनसा ग्रह हैं

ANS. वरुण

Q.110. सौरमण्डल का जन्मदाता किसे कहा जाता है

ANS. सूर्य को

Q.111. पृथ्वी की ‘जुड़वाँ बहन’ कहे जाने वाले ग्रह का क्या नाम है

ANS.शुक्र

Q.112. शुमेकर लेवी 9 धूमकेतु किस ग्रह से टकराया था

ANS. बृहस्पति

Q.113. पृथ्वी के केन्द्र में पाया जाने वाला चुम्बकीय पदार्थ कौनसा है

ANS. निकेल

Q.114. रेडियोसंचार में, प्रेषण ऐन्टेना द्वारा उत्सर्जित संकेत प्रतिबिंबित कहां होते हैं

ANS. क्षोभ मण्डल पर

Q.115. विश्व में सबसे ऊँचा बाँध कौनसा है

ANS. रोवन्स्की (तजाकिस्तान)

Q.116. उत्तरी प्रशान्त महासागर में अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय तिथि रेखा के विचलन का क्या कारण है

ANS. एल्यूशियन द्वीप समूह

Q.117. ऑस्ट्रेलिया महाद्वीप का सर्वोच्च पर्वतशिखर कौनसा है

ANS. माउण्ट कोस्यूस्को

Q.118. किस महाद्वीप को ‘पठारी महाद्वीप’ कहते हैं

ANS. अफ्रीका

Q.119. एशिया महाद्वीप का सर्वोच्च पर्वत

शिखर कौनसा है

ANS. माउण्ट एवरेस्ट

Q.120. महाद्वीप और महासागर किस श्रेणी के उच्चावच हैं

ANS. प्रथम श्रेणी

121. प्लेट विवर्तनिकी सिद्धान्त का प्रतिपादन किसने किया था

ANS. हैरी हैस

Q.122. सम्पूर्ण महासागरीय क्षेत्रफल के कितने प्रतिशत भाग पर महाद्वीपीय मग्न तट का विस्तार है

ANS.7.5%

Q.123. विश्व के सबसे लम्बे जलमग्न केनियन कहां पाये जाते हैं

ANS.बेरिंग सागर में

Q.124. बेसाल्ट के रूपान्तरण के फलस्वरूप किस चट्टान का निर्माण होता है

ANS. एम्फीबोलाइट

Q.125. किस देश में भूकम्प से उत्पन्न विनाशकारी समुद्री तरंगों को सुनामी कहते हैं

ANS. जापान

Q.126. भूकम्प की उत्त्पत्ति से सम्बन्धित प्रत्सास्थ पुनश्चलन सिद्धान्त का प्रतिपादन किसने किया है

ANS.रीड

Q.127. एयर बस ज्वालमुखी कहाँ स्थित है

ANS. अंटार्कटिक महाद्वीप

Q.128. पृथ्वी की सतह के नीचे द्रवीभूत शैल क्या कहलाता है

ANS. मैग्मा

Q.129. दक्षिणी आल्प्स पर्वत श्रेणी कहाँ स्थित है

ANS.न्यूजीलैंड

Q.130. तकला माकन मरुभूमि किस देश में स्थित है

ANS. चीन

Q.131. U आकार की घाटी कहाँ पायी जाती है

ANS.हिमानी क्षेत्र में

Q.132. सीफ का निर्माण किससे होता है

ANS. पवन से

Q.133. पृथ्वी के वायुमण्डल का कितना प्रतिशत भाग 29km की ऊँचाई तक पाजा जाता है

ANS. 97%

Q.134. वायुदाब कब सर्वाधिक होता है जब वायु होती है

ANS. ठण्डी तथा शुष्क

Q.135. प्रतिचक्रवात में वायुदाब कहाँ अधिक होता है

ANS.केन्द्र में

Q.136. किस प्रकार की वर्षा बिजली की चमक एवं बादलों की गरज के साथ होती है

ANS.संवहनीय वर्षा

Q.137. विक्टोरिया झील कहां अवस्थित है

ANS. पूर्वी अफ्रीका में

Q.138. पृथ्वी पर समुद्रतल से सर्वाधिक नीची झील कौनसी है

ANS. मृत सागर

Q.139. एंजिल जलप्रपात किस नदी पर स्थित है

ANS. ओरिनोको

Q.140. विश्व की सबसे बड़ी जहाजरानी नहर कौनसी है

ANS. स्वेज नहर

Q.141. वर्ष 2005 की अवधि में वन क्षेत्र का सर्वाधिक ह्रास जहाँ देखा गया, वह कौन सा देश है

ANS. इण्डोनेशिया

Q.142. दक्षिण अमेरिका में शीतोष्ण घासस्थलों को क्या कहते हैं

ANS. पैंपा

Q.143. जॉर्डन और इजराइल के मध्य कौन

सा सागर है

ANS. मृत सागर

Q.144. सरगासो समुद्र किस महासागर में स्थित है

ANS. अटलांटिक महासागर

Q.145. रेनेल जलधारा किस महासागर की जलधारा है

ANS. अटलांटिक महासागर

Q.146. गल्फस्ट्रीम धारा की उत्पत्ति कहां से होती है

ANS.मैक्सिको की खाड़ी में

Q.147. दैनिक ज्वार

भाटा के मध्य समयान्तर क्या होता है

ANS.24 घंटे 52 मिनट

Q.148. गंगा नदी का डेलटा किस प्रकार का है

ANS. चपटाकार

Q.149. ह्वांगोहो नदी किसमें गिरती है

ANS. पीला सागर में

Q.150. चीन का शोक किस नदी के लिए प्रयोग किया जाता है

ANS. ह्वांगोहो

SECTION-8. 10 Most Mysterious Photograph's

World history is full of hidden truths. And so is this universe. There are 10 pictures in the history of mankind that raise questions that don’t have any answers to them. If you’re in the mood for some mystery, this feature is just for you.

During the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy, a woman is recorded on film and appears in many photographs. She appears to be taking photos of her own while others run for cover. The FBI searched for the woman but her identity and photos were never recorded.

Throughout the years, vibrant lights are famed to show up in photos taken in Norway’s Hessdalen Valley. Many studies have been conducted to define this phenomenon but scientists are still at a loss to explain what it is about the valley that causes these lights.

In 1964, a couple spotted a strange object calmly swimming towards them in a lagoon of Hook Island. It seemed to be a gigantic tadpole like creature, estimated at about 80 ft. long. After taking several photos they reported seeing it open its mouth before moving off.

In 1964, a man photographing his daughter captured what appears to be an astronaut standing behind her. He claims no one else was present in the shot other than the girl. Even Kodak inspected to confirm that the picture was not tampered with in any way.

In 1924, two sailors were killed in a freak accident and buried at sea. In the days following, the crew claimed to see two faces following the ship. The Captain snapped this photo showing the faces in the waves.

In 1960, a dark, tumbling object was reported in Earth’s orbit. At this time, no satellite had been launched nor was the object identified as a man made design. Since then, many other finds have been recorded of similar objects appearing in the orbit before vanishing.

There is very little information available about this photograph other than; the Copper family moves into their new house and take a family photo. After developing the photo, it shows a body falling from the ceiling.

This photo was taken by Apollo 17 during the last flight to the moon. The photo was listed as ‘blank’ due to extreme light exposure. But, when the contrast was adjusted the photo revealed a pyramid like structure.

In 1919, this photograph was taken on the day of the funeral of squad member to be, Freddy Jackson. At the top of the photo, a face emerges behind one of the officers recognised by the members of the squadron as Freddy Jackson.

In 2013, Elisa was found dead inside a hotel’s rooftop water tank. Her death was ruled as accidental and no traces of drugs or alcohol were found during the autopsy. Surveillance footage just moments before her death show Elisa enter an elevator. She begins behaving strangely, stepping to the side as if avoiding someone and moving around in a very unnatural way before ultimately wondering off to her demise.

SECTION-9. Global article's

世界を知る

सम्राट अशोक के नौ अज्ञात पुरुष: भारत का सबसे बड़ा रहस्य;

प्रस्तावना

हज़ारों सालों से भारत की धरती पर एक ऐसी गुप्त संस्था के होने की चर्चा होती रही है, जिसके पास दुनिया को बनाने और मिटाने की शक्ति है। इसे 'द नाइन अननोन मेन' यानी 'नौ अज्ञात पुरुष' कहा जाता है। माना जाता है कि मौर्य सम्राट अशोक ने कलिंग युद्ध के विनाश के बाद इस गोपनीय समूह का गठन किया था।

स्थापना का उद्देश्य

कलिंग युद्ध के नरसंहार ने अशोक को बदल दिया था। उन्होंने महसूस किया कि उन्नत विज्ञान और तकनीक अगर गलत हाथों में चली गई, तो मानवता का अंत निश्चित है। इसलिए, उन्होंने नौ सबसे बुद्धिमान व्यक्तियों को चुना और उन्हें ब्रह्मांड के नौ सबसे खतरनाक रहस्यों की रक्षा करने का जिम्मा सौंपा।

ज्ञान की नौ गोपनीय पुस्तकें

कहा जाता है कि इन नौ पुरुषों में से प्रत्येक के पास एक विशेष विषय की पुस्तक है, जिसे वे पीढ़ी-दर-पीढ़ी आगे बढ़ाते हैं:

मनोविज्ञान: भीड़ को नियंत्रित करने और विचारों को बदलने की कला।
शरीर विज्ञान: शरीर के मर्म बिंदुओं का ज्ञान, जिससे केवल स्पर्श से मृत्यु दी जा सकती है।
सूक्ष्म जीव विज्ञान: महामारियों और वायरस को नियंत्रित करने की तकनीक।
धातु विज्ञान: धातुओं को सोने में बदलने और गुप्त रासायनिक क्रियाओं का ज्ञान।
संचार: पृथ्वी और अंतरिक्ष के अन्य प्राणियों से संपर्क करने के तरीके।
गुरुत्वाकर्षण: विमान बनाने और उड़ने की ऐसी तकनीक जो भौतिकी के नियमों को चुनौती देती है।
ब्रह्मांड विज्ञान: समय यात्रा (Time Travel) और अंतरिक्ष की गहराइयों के रहस्य।
प्रकाश: प्रकाश की गति को नियंत्रित करना और इसे हथियार बनाना।
समाजशास्त्र: सभ्यताओं के भविष्य की भविष्यवाणी करने के नियम।

रहस्य और सच्चाई

इतिहासकारों के पास इस संस्था का कोई ठोस प्रमाण नहीं है, लेकिन लोककथाओं और कुछ लेखकों के अनुसार, ये नौ पुरुष आज भी हमारे बीच वेश बदलकर रहते हैं। वे दुनिया की बड़ी वैज्ञानिक खोजों और घटनाओं को पर्दे के पीछे से नियंत्रित करते हैं ताकि मानवता का संतुलन बना रहे।

निष्कर्ष

'द नाइन अननोन मेन' की कहानी हमें यह सिखाती है कि ज्ञान ही सबसे बड़ी शक्ति है, लेकिन बिना नैतिकता के वही ज्ञान विनाश का कारण बन सकता है। क्या यह वास्तव में सच है या केवल एक कल्पना, यह रहस्य आज भी बरकरार है।

SECTION-10. Philosophical Theorie's

1. Simulation Theory: The Probability Argument

The depth of Nick Bostrom’s Simulation Argument is found in a probability fraction. It calculates the likelihood that we are currently living in a simulation.

: The fraction of civilizations that reach a "posthuman" stage.
: The average number of ancestor simulations run by such a civilization.
Meaning: If is very large (millions of simulations), the probability approaches 1 (100%), meaning it is mathematically near-certain we are simulated.

2. The Multiverse: Quantum Superposition

In the Many-Worlds Interpretation, the universe doesn't choose one path; it follows all of them. This is governed by the Schrödinger Equation:

: The wavefunction, which describes the state of the entire universe.
Meaning: In Many-Worlds, the wavefunction never "collapses." Instead, it decoheres, meaning every possible solution to this equation branches off into a real, parallel history.

3. Ekpyrotic Theory: The Brane Potential

This theory uses M-Theory to describe the force between two "branes" (3D universes) moving through a 5D "bulk". The potential energy between them is often modeled as:

: The distance between the two branes.
: The Planck mass (a fundamental constant).
Meaning: As the distance
decreases, the potential energy becomes highly negative, causing the branes to accelerate toward each other. Their collision is what we perceive as the Big Bang.

4. Holographic Universe: The Entropy Bound

The strongest evidence for the Holographic Principle comes from the Bekenstein-Hawking Entropy formula, which proves information is stored on a surface:

: The surface area of a black hole’s event horizon.
: The Planck length (the smallest possible unit of length).
Meaning: Entropy (information) is proportional to Area not volume. This suggests that the 3D "contents" of a region can be fully described by the 2D information on its boundary.

Final Summary

Each of these equations suggests that reality is not "solid" matter, but rather a set of information densities or mathematical states. Whether it is the probability of being a program or the entropy on a 2D surface, the math points toward a universe that is far more abstract than our senses suggest.

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